CIHM 
Microfiche 
Series 
(Monographs) 


ICMH 

Collection  de 
microfiches 
(monographies) 


Canadian  Institute  for  Historical  Microroproductions  /  Instltut  canadien  de  microreproductions  historlquos 


rg^-fogo 


Tecf-  ,  .ai  a^iCi  Bibliographic  Notes  /  Notes  techniques  et  bibliographiques 


The  Institute  \' 
copy  availa;  -^  .0 
may  be  bibiioc;  .^^ 
the   images   in 


."••(^-''ote'j  tc  obtain  the  best  original 
'  ■'  nine;.  Featu'^es  of  this  copy  which 
,!i( ..  I  y  un'oue,  which  may  alter  any  of 
the   I  .^production,   or  which   may 


significantly  change  the  jsual  method  of  filming  are 
checked  below. 


n 


D 


D 


Coloured  covers  / 
Couverture  de  couleur 


I      I    Covers  damaged  / 


Couverture  endommagee 


j      I    Covers  restored  and/or  laminated  ./ 


Couverture  restauree  et/ou  pelliculee 
Cover  title  missing  /  Le  titre  de  couverture  manque 
I I    Coloured  maps  /  Cartes  geographiques  en  couleur 


Coloured  ink  (i.e.  other  than  blue  or  black)  / 
Encre  de  couleur  (i.e.  autre  que  bleue  ou  noire) 


I      I    Coloured  plates  and/or  illustrations  / 


D 


Planches  et/ou  illustrations  en  couleur 

Bound  with  other  material  / 
Relie  avec  d'autres  documents 

Oniy  edition  available  / 
Seule  edition  disponible 

Tight  binding  may  cause  shadows  or  distortion  along 
interior  margin  /  La  reliure  serree  peut  causer  de 
I'ombre  ou  de  la  distorsion  le  long  de  la  marge 
int6rieure. 

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within  the  text.  Whenever  possible,  these  have  been 
omitted  from  filming  /  Use  peut  que  certaines  pages 
blanches  ajoutees  lors  d'une  restauration 
apparaissent  dans  le  lexte,  mais.  lorsque  cela  etait 
possible,  ces  pages  n'ont  pas  ele  fiimees. 

Additional  comments  / 
Commentates  supplementaires: 


L'Institut  a  microfilme  le  meilleur  exemplaire  qu'il  lui  a 
ete  possible  de  se  procurer.  Les  details  de  cet  exem- 
plaire qui  sont  peut-etre  unique?  du  point  de  vue  bibli- 
ographique,  qui  peuvent  modifier  une  image  reproduite, 
ou  qui  peuvent  exiger  une  modification  dans  la  metho- 
de  normale  de  filmage  sont  indiques  ci-dessous. 

Coloured  pages  /  Pages  de  couleur 

I I    Pages  damaged  /  Pages  endommagees 


D 


D 
D 

n 


n 


Pages  restored  and/or  laminated  / 
Pages  restaurees  et/ou  pelliculees 


□    Pages  discoloured,  stained  or  foxed  / 
Pages  decolorees,  tachetees  ou  piquees 

[   n    Pages  detached  /  Pages  detachees 

Showthrough  /  Transparence 


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Qualite  inegale  de  I'impression 

Includes  supplementary  material  / 
Comprend  du  materiel  supplementaire 

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tissues,  etc.,  have  been  refilmed  to  ensure  the  best 
possible  image  /  Les  pages  totalement  ou 
partiellement  obscurcies  par  un  feuillet  d'errata,  une 
pelure,  etc.,  ont  ete  filmees  a  nouveau  de  fafon  a 
obtenir  la  meilleure  image  possible. 

Opposing  pages  with  varying  colouiation  or 
discolourations  are  filmed  twice  lo  ensure  the  best 
possible  image  /  Les  pages  s'opposanT  ayanf  des 
colorations  variables  ou  des  decolorations  sont 
filmees  deux  fois  afin  d'obtenir  la  meilleure  image 
possible. 


This  item  is  filmed  at  the  reduction  ratio  checked  below  / 

r«i  HnriirT>*nt  PKt  filme  au  taua  dfi  reduction  indioije  ci-dc&&ouft. 


lOx 

14x 

18x 

22x 

26x 

30x 

! 

i.. 

12x 


16x 


20x 


24x 


2ex 


32x 


The  copy  filmed  here  has  been  reproduced  thanks 
to  the  generosity  of: 

Stduffer  Library 
Ou«^en's  University 


L'exemplaire  film^  fut  reproduit  grace  d  la 
gAnArositA  de. 

Stauffer   Library 
Queen's  University 


The  images  appearing  here  are  the  be.'t  quality 
possible  considering  the  condition  and  legibility 
of  the  original  copy  and  in  keeping  with  the 
filming  contract  specifications. 


Las  images  suivantas  ont  ix6  reproduites  avec  le 
plus  grand  soin.  compte  tenu  de  la  condition  et 
de  la  nettet*  de  l'exemplaire  film*,  at  en 
conformity  avec  les  conditions  du  contrat  de 
fllmft^e. 


Original  copies  in  printed  paper  covers  ura  filmed 
beginning  with  the  front  cover  and  ending  on 
the  last  page  with  a  printed  or  illustrated  impres- 
sion, or  the  back  cover  when  appropriate    All 
other  original  copies  are  filmed  beginning  on  the 
first  page  with  a  printed  or  illustrated  impres- 
sion, and  ending  on  the  last  page  with  a  printed 
or  illustrated  impression. 


The  last  recorded  freme  on  each  microfiche 
shall  contain  the  symbol       *   (meaning    "CON- 
TINUED' I.  or  the  symbol  V  (meaning    "END"), 
whichever  "ipplies 

Maps,  plates,  charts,  .jtc  .  may  be  filmed  at 
different  reduction  ratios    Those  too  large  to  be 
entirely  included  in  one  exposure  are  filmed 
beginning  In  the  upper  left  hand  corner,  left  to 
right  and  top  to  bottom    as  many  frames  as 
required    The  following  diagrams  illustrate  the 
method 


Les  exemplaire^  originaux  dont  la  couverture  en 
papier  est  imf      .i*e  sont  filmes  en  commencant 
par  le  premier  plat  et  en  tarminant  soit  par  la 
derniAre  page  qui  comporte  une  empremte 
d'impression  ou  d'illustration.  soit  par  le  second 
plat,  selon  le  cas.  Tous  les  autres  exemplaires 
originaux  sont  filmAs  en  commenpant  par  !a 
premiAre  page  qui  comporte  une  empremte 
a'impression  ou  d'illustration  et  en  termmant  par 
la  derniAre  page  qui  comporte  une  telle 
empreinte 

Un  des  symboles  suivants  apparaitra  sur  la 
derniAre  image  de  cheque  microfiche    selon  le 
cas    le  symbole  ^^  signifie   "A  SUIVRE    .  le 
symbole  V  signifie   "FIN  ' 

Les  cartes,  planches,  tableaux,  etc     peuvent  etre 
filmAs  A  des  taux  de  reduction  diffdrents 
Lorsque  le  document  est  trop  grand  pour  etre 
reproduit  en  un  seul  cliche    il  est  filme  d  partir 
de  Tangle  supArieur  gauche,  de  gauche  A  droite 
et  de  haut  en  bas.  en  prenant  le  nombre 
d  imeges  nAcessaire    Les  diagrammes  suivants 
illustrent  la  mAthode 


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2 

3 

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2 

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4 

5 

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THE   HUMAN   FACTOR   IX    IXDUSTRY 


THE  MACMILl.AN   COMPANY 

NEW  YORK    •    BOSTON        CHICAI.O    ■    PALLAS 
ATLANTA   •    SAN    FRANCISCO 

MAC.MII.LAN  S:  CO.,  Limited 

LONDON    •    noMnAY        CALCL'TTA 
MELBOURNE 

THE  MACM1LI.AN   CO.  OF  CANADA,  Ltd. 
TORONTO 


THE  HITMAN  FACTOR 
IN  INDUSTRY 


BY 


LEE    K.    FRAxXKEL,    Ph.D. 

THIRD    VICE-PRESiriENT 


ALEXANDER    FLEISHER,   Ph.D. 

ASSISTANT    SECRETAKV 
METltOI'OUTAN     LIFE    INSIRANCE    COMPANY 


WITH   TIFK  CoAPEKATIdN 


LAURA  S.  SEYMOUR 


THE   MAUMILLAX   COMPANY 
1920 

Alt  ritjhtt  reserved 


HT^,  b-   ..Y?. 


("OPTBIOHT,    1920, 

Bt  the  macmillan  company. 


Set  up  and  elertrotyped.     Published  June,  1920 


J.  S.  CushiiiL'  ('<■.       iHiwiik  >Si  Smith  ('■). 
Norwoud,  Mass.,  V  >.A. 


TO 


HALEY  FISKE,  Esq. 

PRESIDENT 
METROPOLITAN   LIFK   INSUhANCK   COMPANY 

WHO  GAVK   IS  THE  OPPORTUNITY  TO  USE  THE  COMPANY'S 
FACILITIES  KOU  THE   PREPARATION   OF  MATERIAL 
AND  WITHOUT   WHOSE    SYMPATHETIC   IN- 
TEREST, THIS  Book  would  not 
HAVE     BEEN     POSSIBLE 


3 


r 


4 


PREFACE 

The  constantly  increasing  interest  on  the  part  of  em- 
ployers of  labor  in  tlioir  employes  has  led  the  authors  to 
prepare  this  voltimc,  which  deals  primarily  with  personnel 
and  service  work  in  industry.  It  has,  of  course,  been  impos- 
sible m  the  consideration  of  these  two  important  subjects 
to  omit  referenro  to  other  questions  which  are  involved, 
such  as  wages,  liours  of  labor,  working  conditions,  etc. 

How  great  has  been  the  interest  in  the  human  factor  in 
industry,  is  evidenced  by  the  ever  increasing  hterature  on 
the  subject.  The  War  and  the  industrial  problems  arising 
from  It  added  greatly  to  the  literature  published  by  govern- 
mental agencies  and  private  individuals. 

In  the  books,  pamphlets,  monographs  thus  far  issued 
there  has  been  no  general  discussion  of  the  problems  in- 
volved.    Most  of  the  .studies  made  have  been  along  special 
hnes  and  have  dealt  only  with  certain  phases  of  the  problem 
The  average  employer,  interested  essentially  in  production 
and  the  relation  of  service  measures  in  industry  to  increased 
production,  has  had  no  single  volume  or  group  of  volumes  to 
which  he  might  turn  for  the  information  he  required      To 
help  ,«upply  this  need  has  been  the  thought  of  the  authors 
It  IS  our   hope   that    the   employer   who   has   developed 
service  activities  will  find  something  of  use  to  him      The 
employer  who  is  considering  their  introduction  in  his  plant 
may  find  the  material  here  made  available  of  value  to  him 
in  formulating  his  plans.     The  general  reader  who  is  some- 
what at   sea  regarding  these   newer  industrial  movements 
may  possibly  find  an  answer  to  his  question.     The  volume, 

vii 


VIU 


PREFACE 


we  hope,  may  be  used  as  a  text  book  in  semce  and  personnel 
management  terhnique. 

In  the  past  the  trei'tment  given  to  this  phase  of  industrial 
work  has  been  by  industry  rather  than  by  subject.  The 
former  has  the  advantage  of  giving  a  complete  picture  of  the 
particular  industry.  Arrangement  by  subject  has  the  ad- 
vantage of  enabling  the  reader  to  learn  tl'.c  cumulative  ex- 
perience of  many  employers  and  to  acquaint  himself  with 
the  philosophy  which  uriderlies  such  experience.  With  this 
in  mind,  we  have  endeavored  to  give,  under  proi)er  subject 
headings,  an  analysis  of  what  has  been  accomphshed  in 
industry,  and  an  interpretation  of  the  purposes  and  mo- 
tives which  have  brought  personnel  and  s'  ivice  work  into 
being. 

In  the  last  analysis,  the  value  of  personnel  and  service 
work  will  be  measured  by  the  emiiloyer  in  terms  of  increased 
production  and  by  t'  »  employe  by  the  opportunities  which 
are  accorded  to  him  for  personal  <lev(>lopmen1  both  financial 
and  spiritual.  Both  groups  will  measure  such  service  by 
the  yard-.stick  "Doc<  it  pay?"  "Is  it  worth  while?"  Will 
production  increa.si  .ii  quantity  and  in  ciuality?  Will  the 
worker  have  opportunity  for  better  living  and  for  better 
self-expression? 

We  have  not  attempted  to  incorporate  a  complete  bib- 
liography, but  instead  have  limited  ourselves  *o  a  citation  of 
th(>  sources  of  information  in  regard  to  any  given  fact.  These 
studies  in  them  cKes  t'orm  a  rea.sonably  good  selected  bibli- 
ography of  the  subject. 

We  are  exceedingly  gnilcful  to  Miss  T-aura  S.  Seymour 
for  lier  enthusiasm  .mil  interest.  But  for  her  efforts,  and 
especially  her  ability  to  organi/e  material,  we  doubt  whcttier 
we  wonld  have  fomid  the  time  to  pre|)are  this  work.  \\  c 
want  to  take  this  oppuituiiit  v  to  thank  Miss  Kmily  H.  Hun- 
tington for  her  assistan-e  in  the  prcpanition  of  tiie  chapters 
on   "Insurance"  and  "Conununity   .Vctivilici;,"   Miss  Con- 


PREFACE  |j 

stance  A.  Kiehel  for  her  help  on  the  chapters  on  "Recrea- 
tion," and  Miss  Marguerite  A.  Cooks,  Reference  Librarian, 
for  her  elfective  work  in  collecting,  assorting,  and  preparing 
material.  We  trust  that  we  have  given  credit  to  the  authors 
whose  investigations  and  writings  we  have  used  and  to  the 
corporations  and  individuals  who  responded  so  willingly  and 
at  much  length  to  our  inquiries  for  specific  information. 


TABLE   OF   CONTEXTS 


Preface 

•         •         •         • 

CIHITKH 

I.     Introdcctiox      .... 
U.     Hiiii.SG  AND   Holding 

in.       HuilNG    AND    HoLDINU,    CuNTlN'CED 

rV.      Kd((\ti()n. 
V.      Wiiukim;    II<h'1(.s 

V'l.        W.lUklNC    ("UNDITIONS 

V'll.  Mkdk  AL  Caue   .... 

VIII.  Mktiiod  of  Remuneration 

IX.  Rkfhesii.ment  and  Hkckeation 

X.  The   Kmi'loyeh   and  the  Community 

XI.  iNsrnANi'i,,   Savin(;.s,   and   Loan.-.; 

XII.  (Jkcanization  of   the  Department 


ministration 
List  of  KEKERENCEd 


OF    L 


ABOR     Ad- 


PAQB 

vii 

1 

20 

47 

77 

III 

135 

1G3 

200 

226 

260 

293 

326 
337 


THE    HUMAN   FACTOR 
IN    INJ)USTRY 


CHAPTER  I 

IXTRODUCTION 

The  Function  of  Labou  Administration 

"  Fortho  stn  iiKfli  of  til.,  pack  is  the  wolf,  and  the  strength  of  the 
wolf  IS  the  pack."  —  Kiplint,'. 

Human  Factor  Ignored  in  Quantity  Production.  —  Mod- 
orn  industrial  history  is  tlio  history  of  the  war  against  waste; 
the  war  for  economy  of  rf(nh  in  methods  of  production  and 
complete  utilization  of  raw  materials.     In  the  striving  for 
these  results  the  proprietor  of  the  small  workshop  with  his 
few  workers  gave  way  to  the  corjioration  housing  its  indus- 
trial armies  in  large  factories.     With  the  concentration  of 
workers  and  cai)ital  under  one  management,  the  inanimate 
machinery  of  manufacturing  was  perfected  and  cared  for; 
the  human  machinery,  on  the  otlier  hand,  until  recently  was 
practically  ignored,     nifferentiation  ,)f  proce.s,ses  made  the 
workers'  tasks  more  simple  and   mechanical   and   le.s.sencd 
the  need  for  skill.     The  worker  lost  individual v  and  be- 
can.e  essentially  an  adjunct  to  ili,.  machine,  ea.siiv  procur- 
nl)le,  easily  ivplac(>al)le,  and  apparently  nuiuiring  little  con- 
sid(>r;ition  or  thought. 

The  Workers  Only  Part  in  Production  a  "  Fair  Day's 
Work."  — The  growth  in  the  size  .,f  the  business  unit  of 
necessity  destroyed  the  p(-rsonal  relation  between  employer 


2  THE    HUMAN    FACTOR   IX    IXDUSTRY 

anfl  omployo.  Tliis  separation  rontrilnitoil  to  the  easy  and 
common  belief  of  the  manufacturer  that  he  could  overlook 
the  eftVct  of  work  and  working  conditions  on  his  employes. 
The  employer  was  inti-rested  in  (jl)1:iiiiiii^  a  working  force 
hut  not  in  maintaininfj;  it.  But  the  maintenance  of  the  mi'U- 
tal  and  phj-sical  vitality  of  llie  workers,  which  makes  possible 
vigorous  and  willing  effort,  is  an  essential  in  modern  machin- 
ized  industry.  It  is  in  forgetting  this  that  employer,  em- 
ploye and  conununily  suffer  from  the  diminislied  productivity 
of  a  devitalized  indifferent  working  force,  one  that  has  been 
taught  that  its  only  part  in  industry  is  to  give  a  '"  fair  day'.s 
work." 

Past  Efforts  to  Improve  Working  Conditions.  -  It  would 
b(>  unfair  to  state  that  since  tiie  inception  of  modern  indus- 
try, (>mployers  have  made  no  attempts  to  ameliorate  the  lot 
of  the  worker  and  to  combat  the  unfavorable  conditions  in- 
herent in  machine  production.  Improvements  of  two  kinds 
have  gnidually  taken  place  -  those  forced  upon  the  em- 
ployer and  those  voluntarily  grante(l  i)y  him.  The  first 
comprises  thos(>  brought  about  by  legislation  —  such  as  lim- 
itation of  hours  of  labor,  sanitation  of  factories,  and  indus- 
trial accident  compensation,  and  those  brought  about  by  col- 
lective bargaining —  such  as  reduced  hours,  improved  work- 
ing conditions  and  higher  wages.  The  voluntary  efforts  of 
emphtyers  to  imjirovc  working  conditions  liave  been  vari- 
ously known  ;is  imhislrin}  })(lhrini  iif,  iftlfdrc  inirl:  and  sirr- 
icc  for  inipldjiis.  .\s  tlicse  Icrms  indicate,  (■mi)Ioyers  have 
made  vuluntary  iinprovemciils  in  tlic  p;ist  lai'gely  in  an 
.altruistic  spirit  .and  not  as  ;i  measure  of  economy. 

New  Attitude  toward  Labor  Administration.  To-day 
the  progressive  empIo\"i'r  realizes  llial,  ;ip;irt  from  other  rea- 
sons, economy  ;done  dcmiinds  further  adju-^tments  lietween 
work  and  workers,  ;iiid  consider-^  servic(>  to  enti)loyes  an  m- 
tegral  part  of  [iroduction.  To  this  end,  dep.'U'tments  nf  lal)or 
administr.ition  have  been  organized  in  many  i)lant>  in  recog- 


■^ 


INTRODUCTION 


3 


nition  of  the  nmis  of  the  hum;m  factor  in  industry.     They 
aim  to  increaso  output  by  provicliufr  the  worker  vvith  every 
physical  aiul  mental  stimulus  to  greater  efficiency.     Labor 
admuuslration  is  concerned   with  those  activities  'carried  on 
by  tmpl.^i/n-s  and  employes  jointly  or  separately  which  benefit 
both,  han   as  their  unit  the  industrial  plant  and  are  not  en- 
forced by  laic    or    by  organized   labor*     Carrying    out    the 
mstructions  of  a  legislature  or  cc.nforniing  to' the  d(>mands 
"t  a  union  are  the  negative-  approach  to  the  problems  in- 
volved.    These   mstructions   and    den.ands   merelv   enforce 
acc.pted  stan.iards.     To  secure  the  l)est  interests  of  the  em- 
ployer and  employes  the  pn.gressive  manager  nmst    be  in 
advance    of    prevailing    conditions    of    employment        He 
must  nnprove  and  devise  new  niethods  for  the  economical 
application  of  human  labor  to  production. 


Ht.^XU.VUDS    KOU    EV.VLIATI.VC;    i.AliUK    Ao.Mixis  rU.^TION 

Experimental  Period  Past.  -  Labor  a.lmimstration  has 
passed  through  its  first  stage,  that  of  e.xpernnentation. 
Ihe  second  p(M:,.d,  ,>nc  of  interpn-tation  and  evaluation 
has  be(-n  reaclu.l.  The  future  .l,.pe,  d^  u,K,n  the  result 
ot  this  scrutiny.  If  labor  a.lmiiiistration  can  be  shown  to 
be  of  value,  and  can  b,-  correlated  to  efficient  management 
It  will  enter  into  the  thin!  period,  that  of  e.xten.sion  unci 
ex{)ansi(jn. 

Three  Points  to  be  Considered.  --  C\,ninmnitv,  employer 
'•■"i  '"i'il)l<.y.-  agive  that  the  fundamental  purpo.se  of' in- 
dustry IS  to  produce  th..  greatest  l.o.ssible  quantity  and  the 
Ix'st  ,|uality  of  useful  commodities  with  the  lea.^t  po,sK,b|o 
fost  .and  effort.      Ka.^h  one  m<>asures  industrial  achievement 

ire*',"  inr"''7'"  •"":"";'"'""■  "'■'"'"•'"•   '■"'■  ■■'•^"'-^r  Mai,.t..,„.n,-o  8«rv- 
Hu      H   l,y  .n,pl.,v,.r..  ,.,„„|„,,.s.  ,„■   l,v    h.„h  j„„„lv,  f,.r  ,h.  .lirort  honofit 
'      '  -  .•n,„lo.v,.s  ,.M,i  ,,„   ,|„.  „„l„v,,   ,n„„„v,.„„.,„  .,1  pr.Kiu,.ti.,n  '■     Asm 
Jii'iitoiJ  aboVL"    thi>  ,i,.(lri,t, i... ........    .,,„,,..    ,,,,..         ,,  .        ,        -^s  m- 


THE    IITMAX   FACTOR   IX    INDUSTRY 


with  a  (lim-rciit   rule.     Tho  coininunity  wants   iho  lowest 
l(.}vitiin;,tc   retail   foininodity    price;     tlio  omployor,    hisher 
(livi.lciuls  on  the  capital  investment  ;    and  the  employe,  a 
larger  share  of  pnjfits  in  the  form  of  wages.     In  justifying 
the  expense  of  labor  administration  it  must  bo  proved  not 
oidy  that  it  leads  to  increased  production  but  that  the  bone- 
iits\lerived  are  distributed  among  all  three  groups.     The 
policy  holders  in  a  nmtual  insurance  company  will  favor 
the  installation  of  rest  and  recreation  rooms  for  employes 
of  the  company  and  medical  etiuipment  for  their  care,  if 
these  do  not  reduce  dividends.     They  ju.lge  from  the  stand- 
point of  the  consumer  in  considering  the  price  of  a  com- 
nioility,  and  their  adverse  or  favorable  judgment  may  affect 
the   sale   of   policies.     Tn    any   cooperative   enterprise   and 
other  lines  of  business  to  a  less  obvious  degree,  the  con- 
sumer's  point    of  view   is   important   with   r(>spect   to   ap- 
proi)riations  for  labor  administration.     On  the  other  hand, 
a  corporation  nmst  prove  to  its  stockholders  in  terms  of 
dividends  that  this  service  is  sound  business.     Further,  an 
empL.ver  may  arouse  the  distrust  of  his  employes  if  he  in- 
stalls anv  form  of  such  service  without  first  convincing  them 
of  its  immediate  value  to  them.     There  are,  therefore,  two 
di-tinct  phases  to  the  evaluation  of  lal)or  a(hninistrati(m — 
first,  does  it  mean  improved  (luantity  or  quality  of  output, 
and  secondly,  now  do  the  consumer,  the  management,  and 
the  worker  share  in  the  l)enefits  of  this  improved  output? 

Effect  on  Productivity. —  It  is  difhcuU  to  estuii  vte  the 
value  of  labor  administration  in  concrete  terms.  Wlien 
possibl.>,  results  in  dollars  and  cents  and  in  increased  out- 
put liave  l)een  given  in  Uie  chai)ters  which  follow.  More 
often  the  value  of  this  servitv  can  be  measured  only  in- 
directlv  bv  factors  such  as  stability  t>f  labor  force,  ab- 
senteeism," sickness,  or  accidents.  Moreover,  much  of  this 
work  i^  (.f  recent  origin.     The  efTects  will  b(>  cumulative  and 


..1.. 


...A 


■.\(\'.'v  its  iiitruduction. 


INTFtODUCTION  g 

Attitude  of  the  Community.  -  Labor  arlministration 
has  iK-rn  t,>„  iMuitcd  in  vxtcnt  in  warrant  Ww  statement 
that  It  has  had  any  appreciable  effect  ujx.n  the  community 
except  m  isolated  instances.  The  advanced  attitude  of  the 
community  toward  thcs..  activities,  however,  is  reflected 
m  a  decision  of  the  Court  of  Appeals  of  Xpw  York  in  1%9 
S.v.Mf;  the  Metropolitan  Life  Insurance  Company  the  legal 
ii^ht  t()  purchase  necessary  real  estate  on  which  to  erect  a 
sanatorium : 

A  corporation  may  not  only  pay  its  employe  the  actual  wage 

';;:;. ',";''' '"',  '"'^^v^'r'^ '"  '"■"  ^''"  ^'•^•»" ''""-"-'  -''  national 

tan  en  which  uuhvi.luals  pra-ti,...  in  like  circumstanees.  It 
must  <lo  this  in  order  to  yet  competent  and  efTcctive  serviee  Old- 
af,'e  pensions,  medical  attendance  in  illness,  etc.,  are  not  to' be  de- 
fended  npon  the  .ronnd  of  ..ra.uity  or  eharity,  hut  thev  enter  intt 
t  e  relatu.n  of  the  employer  and  employe,  become,  as  it  were  a  ^art 
er  e^:;:  Srf  'T  ^'"^  ""'''"-^-^  '^  -^-  ^'->  employment  and 
ine  terms  of  employment.  ... 

se.Ji'Zr'Mf'''  '"■'  "I  t  ^"^P'"^---  a^'^^rdins  to  the  enlightened 
n  '  Tr'^  '•'•'  community,  is  a  ,luty  resting  upon  it. 

b  in  s!  :7T  "'"'■'^'  "'■  '^"  """'^  '^  "^'^^'y  transactii^  the 
iniMness  of  the  corporation. 

Value  to  the  Employes.  -  Because  labor  in  the  past 
'.Hi  ..mall  voice  m  the  division  of  profits,  its  attitude  toward 
tlu'  devlopnient  of  industry  has  b(>en  nejrativo  Labor's 
(■ry  has  !,eeM  lor  more  k-isure  hours  away  from  the  factory 
and  for  more  money  to  spon.: ;  without  these,  increased  pro- 
<  wction  seems  unimportant.  It  is  inevitable  that  lalx.r 
shonlc  retard  any  effort  to  .levelop  human  machinery  which 
IS  made  without  its  .Mwisent  and  its  own  tangible  rewanl  in 
v.ew.  The  mdividual  emi.loye  cannot  abstract  himself 
tiom  his  lab.,r  power,  lu-  ,-annot  look  at  it  u.s  a  commodity, 
and  when  an  employment  manager  or  n  scientiP^-  manaser 
assumes  the  authority  of  an  expert    in   devisinir   n.e.ns  K. 


Vv'iiicii  L 


i.e  employe  may  douiile  or  (luadruple  his  labor  power, 


6 


TIIK    lUMAX    FACTOR    IX    IXDISTKY 


the  latt(>r  naturally  inoks  Inr  tlir  pcrsoiiiil  liciicfil  \n  lu^  do- 
rivod  thorpfroin.  The  cniployc  will  aLiici'  lint  it  is  tidod 
to  iucreasf  the  cfliciciicy  of  tlu-  woikinji;  I'oicc  an<l  produc- 
tion by  any  means  which  l)rinfj;s  him  a  share  in  the  henelits 
of  this  increase.  If  lahar  administration  is  translated  to 
mean  to  him  merely  a  deduction  from  wa^i'.s  for  a  t^roup 
sickness  insurance  scheme,  or  a  periodic  meiliial  examina- 
tion, or  the  interrn])tion  of  his  piecewoi'k  liy  eiilorced  rest 
periods,  he  will  be  douhtful  of  its  value.  If  there  is  the 
slifi;htest  suspicion  anions  employes  that  their  elHciency 
is  })einfi  increas(-d  at  the  expens(>  of  their  happiness  and  that 
so-called  "labor  administiat  ion  ""  is  a  substitute  for  rea- 
sonable hours,  decent  waives,  and  independence,  it  is  doomed 
to  faihn-e.  If  the  value  of  this  service  is  not  apparent  to 
the  employe  in  higher  money  wau:(>s,  he  must  at  least  be 
convinced  that  his  own  <j;reater  eHiciency,  (hie  to  such  thin.i!;s 
as  propel'  health  supervision,  opportunity  for  recreation,  and 
lessened  worry  for  the  future,  has  iiuaca.sed  his  "  real  wage.s  " 
and  his  capacity  for  enjoying  life. 


New  Xamfs  rou  Old 

Historical  Origin  of  Labor  Administration.  —  Preparatory 
to  ;i  survey  of  modern  methods  of  labor  admiiiisti-ation  it 
is  interesting  to  trace  their  origin  in  history,  prior  to  the 
adoption  of  the  term  "welfare  work."  The  recent  growth 
of  welfare  activities  has  lK>en  so  lapid  and  universal  that 
we  are  prone  to  consider  thrni  a  iicnv  develoiiment  in  in- 
dustry. On  the  <-ontiary,  we  find  that  even  in  medieval 
industry  eini)loyers  provided  for  the  well-bring  of  their 
employes  in  ways  which  seem  strikingly  modern. 

Provisions  for  the  Welfare  of  Journeymen  and  Appren- 
tices in  Medieval  Industry.  -  In  the  riKnlieval  guilds  ar- 
rangements  wei-e   made   for   the   adjustment    of  grievances. 


IXTRODUrTION 


to  so  on,.(. ,,  yr:n  to  all  tho  shcps  of  thoir  craft  and  rail  the 
|'Pl>.vn.,.vs  iH.fon.  thorn,  and  if  tlu>  appronti.v  ..omplainoci 

uv,.  tunes  against  las  n.aster  for  'insufficient  finding' 
tlH'.v  nad  pnucr  to  take  hin,  away  and  put  him  with  another 
;';■';:;:':  ^7  ^-^'^  ^''^'  ^^^'^  •'•■■ployc  cast  ..tr  by  the  trade. 
I..  l.i.M  an  ord.nan.v  reads  that  "  if  any  serving  man  (jour- 
noyn.a,,)  of  he  saui  trade,  who  has  behaved  hi.n.elf  well 
a.td  loy..dlv  tow.nds  his  ut.aster  who.n  he  has  served  shall 
•■'";"''\";'  '"';'"^''''''  to  h,.|p  and  tnaintain  himself,  he  shall 

-  ^•''-'  ''.V  "•  .ood  folks  of  the  said  trade,  tmtil  he  .shall 
I  .•ne  reeovered  and  be  ..ble  to  help  and  maintain  him.self  "  ^ 
At   t,n,e.  the  , Master  was  .-alled  upon  not  otdv  to  teach  ihe 

;''77''7'  ■'■;  ^'•-'''  '-t  also  to  afford  hna  further  educa- 
;"";•'  -Iva..  a,es.      In   IUV2  in  the  case  of  a  boy  appren- 

-  oal.b..dasheratfo,,rtee,,yearsofa.efor\terof 
■  ■  ■'••  ;  '";';"■''  ""•'•'•■*""'<  ^^'  P'-ovi.le  hitn  with  two 
n^s,ehc.lu...'     Hours  of  wotk  were  fixed  by  the, uild. 

J"    MS-'   the    leather    sellers,    for   instance,   set    forth    that 

u.,.     s  M,e  done  .ady  betwee,.  si.  m  ;^ 

wH    w  "'"'"••"  ^f"'-<'^'>--  vigils  ami  festival  davs, 

w        c„,      '•-7  '^'  ;'^-  •••<'Io<-k.^     AlUmld  memb;.; 
H    (ntnl       ,0  draw  fron.  a  tnutual  l,enefit  f.md  in  the 
-e  of  real  need.     Tins  ,nild  chest  was  filled  with  the  fes 
'-..-i   for  the  enrolhnent   of  apprentices  and  for  obt    n 

.       .Yn.cdon,o,   the,,.    Vattd   from  the  pe,.iodicds 
''"'<'"'   ''•"-;'   '..asters  and   journeyn.en.     Even   when   the 

•';■•;;'■--"    I'-t    the   ,uild    franchise   and    probablv    p  .d 

■    --7;-andfej.,hanthen.^^ 
'"    '    :  '."    ';'"^"'"''    "'<■'"••".<!    the   apprentices  with  relief^ 
;'-'''-;   ''7  'IH-  wardens  distril,uted,no,.ev  for        W, 

,;--;''puppor,,,fd.,re.sedwi.lows  and  orphans 
'     M.ld.       Loans  we,e   made  lo   tide  members  over  -i 

■  '"   ■--■ii.vivr.-,  ,„   ousiness  or  hnd  employ- 


8 


THI-:    IH'MAX    FACTOR    IX    INDUSTRY 


mcnt.^  Th(>  Cnrpontors  of  London,  \'.V-V.\,  stipu lilted  also 
that  sick  nicnilxM's  should  receive  friendly  visits  from  the 
wardens,  besides  l)ein<i  i^iven  fourteen  pence  a  week.** 

Transition  from  Small  Workshop  to  Factory.  —  Though 
the  status  of  the  medieval  master  and  workman  was  dif- 
ferent, tlieir  work  place  was  the  same,  their  common  inter- 
ests were  appar(>nt,  and  provision  for  their  mutual  welfare 
was  +hc  natural  result.  While  the  so-called  industrial 
revolution  has  everywhere  carriinl  in  its  wake  a  nominal 
democracy,  the  loss  of  contact  between  employer  and 
employe  has  contributed  to  tliat  disparity  of  interest  be- 
tween them  which  liniits  tlie  effectiveness  of  modern  in- 
dustrial organization.  But  even  in  the  beginnins  of  machine 
industry  and  factory  life,  individual  employers  realized  the 
value  of  improving  the  conditions  of  their  employes  and  the 
methods  adopted  differed  little  from  modern  "  welfare 
work." 

Robert  Owen,  Father  of  Labor  Administration.  —  The 
real  father  of  labor  administiatiou  was  Rol)ert  Owen.  In 
1800,  he  took  over  the  man.agement,  or  "  govcTument  " 
as  he  called  it,  of  New  Lanark,  a  cotton  mill,  l)uill  in  1784, 
and  emi)loyed  some  ISOO  or  2000  persons  including  about 
500  children,  a  "  collection  of  the  most  ignorant  and  desti- 
tute from  all  parts  of  Scotland,  possessing  the  usual  char- 
acteristics of  poverty  and  ignoranc(>."  '■'  By  1812  he  wrote 
that  the  same  population  "  iiad  now  become  conspicuously 
honest,  industrious,  sober  and  orderly,  and  that  an  idle 
individual,  one  in  liciuor,  or  a  thief,  is  .scarcely  to  be  seen  from 
the  l)eginning  to  the  end  of  the  year."' 

Robert  Owen's  policy  was  paternalistic  and  inquisitorial. 
No  phase  of  his  employe's  mode  of  life  escaped  his  inspeo 
tion  and  regulation.  One  of  his  first  acts  was  to  enlarge, 
repair  and  rel)uit(l  the  houses  in  the  village.  A  rule  was 
made  by  wliich  every  tenant   was  required   to  cl(>an  house 


■\f\     \Tr\~\ti  /-\\\'i-i^\\      \itk2     11 


/^l^lJTi      f-M^t^fi 


.,+  k;..- 


INTRODUCTION 


9 


i 


oxpon.so.     H.  an.phfio,!   ,h.  village  water  supplv    doansed 
•h"    st,v..,s    and    th.„    poli,.,.,,    thorn,     m'''^^^^ 

r^ys,o,.osatu-hi,..n,otto,-J>o.s,.o.:;;'^e;;^^S^^^^ 
th    ...IH...  stores  of  the  village  an.l  at  a  mlu.tion  of  s    i  "  2 
per  rout    ,„    pnc..     Th.  profits  fro.n   this  storo  supp    ted 
ho        nstuut.on  fo,-  the  Fonnation  of  CUn^arWr  •'  a  schc^ 
fordui.iren.oponod  in  1810.     Theschool  building  was  used  ^ 
a  rocroat.on  hail  for  adults  in  the  oveniuK.     A  sma  ^^0^ 
of  land  was  roso.-ved  for  cultivation  bv  the  mi     opera  -vr 
An   asyhnn    was   i)uilt    for   th.   sick   an<l    .n^ed     T'  ^^'.'^^• 

;.nk  for  employes  received  d,,ositsrC:ii;^  in  tsT 
tlu  factory  no  clnld  under  10  was  employed.  In  1816  he 
.•odu<.ed  workin,  hours  fron.  the  prevailing  14  hour     .day 

^of^^W.^^^'^^^-^^^ 

Other  Pioneers.  -  Robert  Owen  was  not    alone   in    his 

PK,neer  work.     One  of  the  n.ost  anibitious  o    th  se  ear t 

fforts  ,s  told  about  in  Homer's  Report  of  1845.     An  Engl  sh 

o  nP;n.v.  c.nploying  Sol  hand.s,  supported  not  only  a  S 

ooi  for  factory  cnildren  and  tlie  c.hildren  of  their  emplol"^ 

e.nployed  .  sn.r.eon  at  the  factory  daily  betweenT2  aTd  i' 

n    ?,     T      '  ''■''' ""  ''''''^'■■^'  •  ^^  ^''^''  '^^i»'i  With  an  instructor 
ftm     ;r'-^^''  ^^-'""^->'-vingsbank  receili  g^um 

intn  St       on   undi.sturl^ed   accumulation  of  six   months"- 
iC^'^^^rT''"'  1  '''  «"-  exacted  Z:;l: 

L^.:^gar:;- ;::;:;;;;;--;;,-. --^^  p--  -d  a 

Economy  of  this  Service  Recognized.  -  Fron.  the  very 
stall  this  work  was  found  to  pav      Robert  r>„.on' 
eder^od  fonn  of  industrial  .ov^^nn ';':^,^:^  ,:  ^^ 
of_about     L,.),)00  a  y    .  from  1800  to  1830.  afJe.  n'll^ 
-wvw  in  uueanied  wages  when  the  factory  was  shut  d^wn 


10 


THE   HUMAN   FACTOR   IX    INDUSTRY 


in  1S07.  and  lucotiiip;  tlio  cxpcnso  of  iH'iiovolonoos.  This 
was  an  avcraj^o  of  ~]  P<'''  '<'"<  ivturn  on  llic  CliiO.OOO  capital 
invcstniciit."  Some  of  this  pioiit  woiiM  ii-m  to  havo 
Ik'cii  illc^itiiiiatc,  silicc  nwcii  l),iiil  a  lower  axcrajir  \V(vkly 
wa^c  than  was  connnon  in  similar  ('stalili>l!nii'n(  ~. 

The  third  of  Owen's  essays  on  "  A  New  \iew  of  Society." 
piiMished  in  ISK'i,  appi  al-  "to  niaiinfaetureis  and  oilier 
nnployers  of  labor,  in  their  own  interests  no  li'ss  tlian  tho-e 
of  the  nation  at  lar^e  "  to  follow'  his  example.  He  ponils 
out  the  ccoiioniy  of  earhig  h)r  the  i<lant  laachinery  and  wrote 
that : 

If  due  care  as  to  the  stato  of  your  inanimate  iiiacliines  can  pro- 
duce such  lieneti'Mal  results,  \vh:Lt  may  not  lie  e\i>.  cted  if  you  (le\ot(' 
c<iual  attention  lo  your  \ital  machuics,  who  are  much  more  woiidc!-- 
fully  constructed:'  .  .  .  From  expcrieni'e  which  cannot  .l-c.i\c  me, 
I  venture  to  assure  you  that  your  time  and  money  so  appli>  d.  if 
<iirectc<i  hy  a  true  Isnowledire  of  the  -uhject.  would  return  not  live, 
ten  or  fifteen  per  cent  for  your  capital  so  .xpeuded,  but  ufleu  tifty 
and  in  many  eases  one  hundred  per  cent.^ 

So   one  of   the   earliest    experimenters   in   "welfare   work" 
discovered  that  it  i)aid. 

Labor  Administration  on  the  Continent.  iMiRlish  rm- 
phjyers'  eiVorts  to  improve  the  .'ondition  of  their'  employes 
prohahly  did  not  antedate  -imilar  ones  on  the  Continent. 
In  France  the  Blanzy  mining  eomi);my  lie>>;an  luiildncj:  li.ui-es 
foi-  theii'  employes  and  eliarjiint:  -mall  reiil-,  in  ISiM.'- 
Messis.  Schneider  and  Company,  proprietor-^  of  the  Creusot 
Steel  W  .rks,  estahlished  a  provident  fund  in  \SM .  and  lie- 
t\ve(>ti  lS;i7  am!  \SW  ad\aneed  liiuldinii:  loans  to  o\(i-  two 
thous.aiid  wiuknien."  in  1S:}S  tic-  Mai-on  heekiire, 
famed  for  its  ,.;nly  prolit  s|i;,iin^  s\stem,  eontriiiuted  one 
fourth  of  its  prolits  to  an  emi)loyes"  mwtii.al  .aid  societv  " 
It  is  interesting  to  note  here  !<»•  th.at  lldme-.le.ui  l.eelaire 
attnhiiied  his  i'(ulune  of  1 .2l)',),0tX)  fi.uies  to  the  economy 
of  profit  sharing!;. 


i 


rXTRODlCTION 


11 


On  fhornnfinonf   fho  various  roliof  f„nds  of  tho  gi.ilds 
an,l  ,nutu:,l  l.nefit  sonoti..  worn  tho  earliest  to  he  ^  n 

W,|    ,,._vsten.a,ie   insunuK.   of  employes   suppoKd 
M  pa  f  In  <  nploy,.,s.     In  1839  the  Lie.e  Mutual  I,  suraneo 

""'"'"    '"^"•;'";'"   '-•^'>-   '^t    tlu.   ...nployes'   expense.      Th 
^sMn    ,.xu.  ,..     ,.pi,,,v    through    other    Belgian    nunin, 

'  1^  .ni.li.unal  fund  in  IS.Vi  and  soon  ineorporat..!  with  it  a 
P"'— nu-d.      Alundfor.hereliefofsieknessa,   home   V 
|-lo-d  u.   1S7.,  .  ,,..pi,al   fo,.  en.ployes    in    1872,  ^uu  t 
"nsnar.ee  eon.pany  .  ,    ,S77.     The  welfare   institutiont 
'•r  ti-  Krupp  firn.  dc.v.loped  so  rapidly  that  th,>ir  de       n 
';;-■"  isns  nearly  hi,,.,,  . Mhree  h,mdr.l  oeta  ';   e^       ■ 

;        •        '•     -vHl     ,.,.,„      ,,„,„,„,,    ,,.,^^,„    their   paternal 
'"•••'    '""■   larfory^nrN   n,   th.  ,,.Hy  thirties,  uith  hoard 
"«  l-,.s..s   eon,xany  <Ounvh.s,  <.onu.anv  stores  a,Hl    o^^^r^^ 
:;;;'    :''-:   ^;'":''    •■''"'■-    -d,.r    fourteen    vea  s     r   ^ 

I'""^  ""■'"" ';-'-•■'<--!  in  and  out  ..fwrkin^rr 

''""""^•.''••'    '■^^••■'■'"^''■" .■..■h  operative -s  u-aK.      Son.o 

'''■"';'•■''''••'''•'-'•'•••'•'*-■'-.... van.onthtothefat   rv 

-'-''•'^--HM..  vananaNM.nu.loy.s  fnHM.f  ,.har..  .'  f 

/""".   hrst    prnpos..,!    ,n    |,s;^7,   ori.in:.,,„|   wi,h   U,e   .iris 

:::i:  7''^ ;.':-'  • "-■  -'iran.  ..atur.. ..;...': 

H     -on  :,nd    ,,,.,...  ,^ 

P''>'t,d   llu.n       aln.;,   n.at.r  ■'   whn.   wr„n,u   for   ,|,„   nn.  r. 

;;'(/    were    prohahly    exa,^er:,„.,,       T„    ..nnv    np,,-.,  '  . 

'•''-^.   -'-l>la...    ua.on'-.u,sHXewi.:nKland,-2:: 


12 


THE   HUMAN   FACTOR   IN    INDUSTRY 


driver  was  paid  "  a  dollar  a  head  "  for  cacli  recruit  "  and 
more  in  proportion  to  the  distance,"  so  that  pirls  were 
brought  from  too  far  away  to  enable  any  easy  return  home 
—  'hus  alleged  the  Cahotrillc  Chronicle  in  1846.  It  further 
clamied  that  conditions  of  work  and  wages  were  misrepre- 
sented to  make  it  appear  that  U)wv\\  factory  girls  "  could 
dress  in  silks  and  spend  half  their  time  reading."  ^^  It  is 
probaljle.  however,  that  a  resident  of  Walden,  New  York, 
was  not  drawing  entirely  on  his  partisan  imagination  when 
he  wrote  to  A'/Zcs  Rigivkr,  a  protectionist  i)apor,  in  1827, 
that  "  it  has  become  (juite  fashionable  in  this  part  of  the 
comitry  to  seek  the  comfort  and  well  being  of  the  people 
employed  in  manufacturing  establishments."'-"  II(^  con- 
cludetl  his  letter:  "Sir,  a  well  rc...;i!lated  manufacturing 
esta!)li<h!ncnt  in  this  coimtry  is  a  red  boarding  school  for 
young  women  between  the  ages  of  1',  .ve  and  twenty,  taken 
as  they  are  from  the  poor  and  less  inoductive  class.  I'.nd  from 
solitary  khchen  service;  and  since  the  introduction  of  the 
power  loom  they  compose  a  large  proijortion  of  the  persons 
employed." 

The  welfare  work  at  Lowell  seems  not  t(»  have  been  so 
much  the  result  of  f;ir-sightcd  economy  or  of  democratic 
sympathies  on  the  i)ait  of  the  employers,  l)ut  rather  ot  the 
nece.'^sity  for  .attracting  workers.  Lowell  employiM-s  seem 
to  have  shown  no  gical  anxiety  to  retain  then-  workers  after 
securing  them,  and  their  "  welf.ire  work  "  was  in  no  way 
comparable  to  that  existent  in  Knglaiid  or  on  the  continent. 


ThK    NkW    InIKIUIST    in    LaHOIC    Al)MlNlsTR.\ri<>N 

Labor  Administration  a  Profession.  It  seems  proliable 
that  the  earlie-i  pioneers  iii  weliare  work  weic  ai'tuated 
largely  liy  philnht  liropic  motive^.  ■|'n-d;iy  f.ast  accuimi- 
lalHii;  d.ita  an-  pro\  iim  tiie  mipuitani'e  oi'  liie  scienl  ilic  study 
of  the  Imnian  elenieiit  in  nidu-try,and  lal)of  ad!nini>tratioii 


INTRODUCTION 


13 


IS   becoming  a   recognized   branch  of  production.     One  of 
the  fir^t  signs  that   the  imnian  niaclune  uas   beginning   to 
receive  the  systeinalic  attention  heretofore  given  only  to 
the  business  or  nuvhanics  of  pro(hiction  was  the  introduction 
of  the  Kfhciency  Ijigirnvr,  who  was  .•all.-d  upon  to  supple- 
rnent   the  inanageincnt   with  a  knowledge  „f  the  teciuu-.,uo 
of  product-  .1,  ui  its  rehitioii  t(,  tii.'  workers.     It  was  hoped 
that  he  would  coordinate  tlu>  man  p<,wer  an,i  maciiine  power 
of    the    manufa.'turing    phuit,    between    which    a    wasteful 
'!ialad.|us1m..nf    had    been    .hsrov..r.Mi.      Following    the    FfTi- 
ciency  Kngineer  has  ,.<,me  the  Kmployruent   Manager,  who 
gives   Ins   fme   to  the  hiring  an<i   discharging  of  emplovcs 
and   methrnls  of   payuig   (,r   promoting   them.     Both   have 
come  mlu  existence  siiu-e  (he  beginm'ng  of  the  century 

College  Courses  in  Labor  Administration.  Handling 
<  H>  working  fonv  of  a  plant,  earing  for  the  lu.man  ma- 
clunery,  ,s  fast  becoming  a  pn.tVssion.  The  Amos  Tuck 
.Vho.,1  of  .\dnunis(ration  and  Fin.ance  at  Dartmouth,  the 
I  tuvei^uy  of  Rochester,  th,.  School  of  BusiiH-ss  .\dmhiistra- 
lon  of  Harvard,  the  Wharton  School  of  Finance  of  the 
t  nive,>.rty  ol  I\.nnsylvania.  the  C,,!!,..,,  .,f  Kngineering  of 
(  ornell  I  mversity  and  ( •<,hnubia  Cniversi,  v  all  offer  curses 
in  employment  management.  The  Buffalo  Chamb,r  of 
(<.mnu.rce    proposes    a    College    of    Industrial    Kngineern,g 

tn    s  udy    mduslnal    hvgiene,    apprenti,-eship,    psvd.ol v 

^'Haolog.v,  and  a.lmim>t  rat  ion.  During  the  war  .ever'al 
scries  of  short  ..our.s..s  for  ..mpioyment  n,,u,agers  were  uiven 
'V  the  Ini.ed  States  Departnu.,.  of  I,abor.  •'  Industrial 
<nnnM.|ors  now  otfer  professional  advice  on  problems 
"I  |)ersonne|  management. 

Manufacturers'  Magazines  and  Associations.  -  The  r.- 
'•'•nt   d.vclopn,cnt   of  maua/incs  dcalmu  u„h   tl,e  problems 

yfpl::hl    PC.>onnelwilnes.then-n.umter..<,    n,   tlus.ubjecf 
/w.  u,-,,  /„,/../..,/  M,n,a„r.,rnt.S,.,.,,,  /...';,.  1  ,,,/a,.  h,- 
"'^■^''^^'    '""'    ""•    l>'"''J'     I'hn,    among    others    have    been 


14 


THE   HUMAN'   FACTOR   IX    INDUSTRY 


with  ono  (>X('op(ioii,*  ost;il)Iishoil  since  1900.  Tlioy  form 
a  mediuiii  for  the  cxcliaiiiio  of  ideas  luit  diily  on  technical 
and  mechanical  siihjt  cts,  Imt  on  all  the  prolilenis  of  inanafiini!; 
a  \vorkin<j;  force.  There  are  also  the  new  ortianizations 
such  U!-'  the  Kiaployment  Maiiat^ers"  Association,  the  National 
Safety  Council,  the  National  Association  of  ( 'ori)orat ion 
Schools,  an<l  the  National  Socii>ty  for  tlie  Promotion  of  In- 
dus) lial  Ilducation.  The  l^ureau  of  Workinii  Conditions 
of  the  riiited  Stales  T^epartment  of  I>;i!)or.  ci'eated  dur- 
ing; the  last  ye.ar  of  the  war.  indicates  t  he  jirowin<i  emphasis 
laid  on  the  condition  of  the  woikin^  foiccf 

Reasons  for  the  New  Interest.  <hie  natu'ally  asks 
why  the  value  of  human  lahor  h;is  licen  more  apprcaateil 
in  the  p.ast  decade  than  in  former  years  of  m;ichine  indu-try. 
No  one  reason  c.an  l)e  liiveii ;  l)Ut  umlouhtedly  the  need  lor 
more  rijiid  economy  in  the  size  of  IIh'  industtia.!  unit  and 
Pl)eediii>i  up  of  |)roduclion  liaNC  loniii  entirosscd  tlie  atltmlion 
of  industri.d  manaueis  'Xpeiienct"  has  shown  i!i;it   these 

alone  will  not  success!  ..y  i  lee!  national  and  intern, it ioiial 
comjiet  ition. 

The  Efficiency  Movement.-  The  teiin  "industiial  ef- 
ficiency" was  iiist  a])plied  to  the  human  factoi-  \>y  Hi'. 
Arthui-  Shadwell,  whose  study  of  industrial  uieihods  in 
Kn^jland,  (iermany,  and  America  appeared  in  pail  in  the 
J.iiiitloii  Ti nil's  in  10015. 

I'redciick  W'inslow  Taylor's  hook  on  77/c  I'lirri  pit  x  "f 
Sciiiilijir  Mdiiiitii  INI  nl,  pulili-hed  in  !01l.  (aystallized  tin- 
American  efhcieiicy  nioNciiiciit  and  dctiiied  it  to  mean  not 
onlv  >top-watch    method--   of   reuulat  iiisi'   liodily  moNcmeiil-, 

Put    to    ilirlnile    till'    <:ireful    -election    of    lllcn,    their    -ei(nli(ic 

* 'Die  prni'i-riitnr  nf  I lulufl'.dl  Mnnniii  mi  v,i.  Eiifjinciriim  Mafimini .  wn^ 
(ii  a   I'uMi  licl  in    |s<n 

I  llic'liil  1  .,mi.|m\  n.ilil  M,:ii:ii/<'rs'  As.mici.'itidli  \\;i  fiiuii'lc'l  iii  I'.UJ.  (In- 
Nuliiiliill  .\;.-i)(i;i(i'.ii  (or  (  i.ll)!"!:!!!!!!!  Si-llniiirt  ill  !'.•!:(.  the  NMUniial  Sali-ty 
(■(lUiii-il  in  nUJ,  the  Nalioiml  tSoi-iely  for  llit-  I'miiiolion  of  lu-luritj-iul  Ldu- 
calii'M  ui  lllltT. 


IXTRODUCTION 


15 


4 


''''•"•■•""'"   .'"I'l  (lovHopnuMit  an.l  an   inti.nato  friondly  eo- 
";;'';"">"    l"■'^v.r„    tl...    .na.,aji,.m.-n1    a.„l    tl„>    mum.   ^  Tl.. 
«;Iin'.M.y  luovnn.a.t,  as  i,  ,l,,vd,.,K.l,  nnpLasi.,.,!  ,lHM,..,vs- 
SItyf.,n^K^^p^.su,nWyol^^^,li.h,a.,,l^..s(IKM•io,Is,n.o^o,nv 
''    ;'7''''''' ■•'  '■•7''  ''''•'■"''^•'- »•' '-HoM  in  llu.  .haiK.  ,.f  a  iM.mM 
;""'  ''"■'"••"'^'l"atiounlp|,vsu,ur(o  m.rk.     But   it   faihvl 
^"   i"-';vnl,.   ,1,.   „„„■,.    in.iefinit..   an.l    l.asir   ..Icnrnts   \vhi,.h 
'■•"■'l'n-.'1-l.i.lH.sl   <vp.  of  ,.fli,.i,.n..y  in  a  working  fo,vo 
"--'y   -n„       ,       ,,,,^^,,i,i,_^.      I,  i„,.,„,,.i  ,lso  the  need  fd^ 
I'.v  enipl-nvs  for  ,!,-,„o..ralic  lal.or  ..rnani/ati.ui 

Discovery  of  the  Extent  of  Labor  Turnover  -  The 
^»u,iyot  ,!,eunrkerh>  in.h.slry  has  .irau-n  attention  to  the 
:n-r  pn.vahail  l.hor  tuni.nvr,  and  the  r„st  of  this  insta- 
'"'"y  '"^'  ;v'"l<in,^  for.v.  Defini.i,,,,,  „f  kil.or  f.irnove,- 
:;:;''  '';""'";I-  "1  ronipatini,  it  ar-  numerous  and  varied 
.""'  '"'""I  .^'.'n.s  |).p,.,rtn,ent  of  I.,.;i,„r  defines  i(  :.s  th,■ 
mnnh,.rui  H.paranonsrron.s..rvie.Mhn-in-ut;iveni.eriod  ••^•' 
\\li:itev..r  (he  precise  definilio,,,  l.,I,„r  turnover  is  th.-  re- 
verscsid.  ot   the  proMrn,  of  un.anploy „t.  ^n.l  fn,n,  the 

sfMt.dpon:,  of  indu>try  rather  than  worker  it  is  a  tneasur.  of 
'"'^tahih..  :  prodnetiou  and  of  the  n.aladjustiuent  hetw.en 
til.'  re.|unvn,enls  nf  uidusfry  and  woW^.t.  It  is  one  of  the 
tn-st  sy,  ,pt.,n,s,  as  veil  a^  e.,nt rilailorv  rauses  of  the  loss 
•'^   '|nn,an    values    in    indu>try.    to    attrart     widespread    at- 

'"     ':"-,  '-'    ^""'>-    "'■    l^>''v.'    ine.al    .uatn.faet uri.iir    ,,mi- 

l;'"i'-nMhe  r,ni,.d  Statrs,  witlMion.  less  than  ;5(l()  to  n.ore 
nan    |.)..,n„  „„„,,„,„.,   .,,•  ^,„   „.,.,,,,„^  ,,^  ^^.|,     ^^^^^^^^^^^^^   ^^^^^ 

f""';u-.n,  Ian    :    w.lha   total  increase  in  the  working  forre 
'l"nnu   the  y,,-  of  r..;.,.7   employes,    these  eon.panies    hired 

ovo*r"   'n!"lr''""e  '"  .'""".'^  "*"""''•'  ""«'"  "f  ""^  "•'■■'      '-'"-r  Turn- 

.  ^...-i-liyiS-l:;"-  It 'r-  i;L=r::,;:;,.";::  ■  r- 

pn-utice.w  ".isi.mi.i      liiruiiiK  .,v(  r      uu  ui». 


-igf 


16 


THE   HUMAX   FACTOR   IX  IXDUSTRY 


42,571,  or  six  and  oih-  third  times  as  many  as  wore  needed  to 
meet  the  increase.  Of  these  72.8  per  cent  had  never  l)efore 
l)een  eny:;iM('d  l,y  any  one  of  the  companies.  These  indus- 
tries thus  lost  (hu'infj;  the  year  3r),,S74  employes,  wliile  at  the 
end  of  the  y(>ar  they  were  employing  only  a  total  of  43,971."' 
These  were  the  first  data  procured  to  sliow  the  de<i;ree  and 
extenl  nf  lalioi-  tuinover  which  was  found  to  he  peculiar 
to  no  one  part  of  the  United  States  and  to  exist  likewise 
in  .\usti-ia,  lliiiiland,  France,  and  (lermany. 

Cost  of  Labor  Turnover.  —  Tins  constant  flow  from  one 
factory  to  aiiotlu'r  does  not  benefit  the  fjreater  lunnher  that 
chaiiiie.  It  undermines  the  morals  of  the  workiiifj;  force 
and  lessens  <i:('neral  productivity.  The  cost  is  borne  by 
em[)love,  employer,  and  conmninity,  and  cannot  be  ac- 
curately reduced  to  dollars  and  (•ents. 

Causes  of  Labor  Turnover.  —  .Mthouuli  as  old  as  indus- 
try itself,  labor  tui'nover  has  probably  increased  rapiilly 
in  the  past  few  decades.  This  is  n<jt  (lu(>  to  a  shortage  in 
lul)or  but  rallier  to  the  increasing  subdivision  of  labor 
processes,  which  has  made  work  more  monotonous  and 
transition  from  one  occupation  to  another  more  easy. 
Traveling  from  i)lacc  to  |)Iace  has  l)ecorne  a  simple  matter 
of  hours  instead  of  days,  or  days  instead  of  months.  News- 
papers and  oth(>r  advertising  chamiels  carry  ihe  news  of 
[)ositions  or  opportunities  for  advancement  in  indu.strie.s 
in  (lifTercnt  localities.  The  less  skilled  worker,  discon- 
tented with  his  moTiotonous  task,  anxious  for  more  w.ages, 
mor"  leisure  time,  or  change  at  all  costs,  assumes  almost  a 
nomadic  existenc(>. 

I'aiiploycr<  |)romoli'  this  migratory  condition  by  compet- 
ing instead  of  coo])crating  in  their  eii'nii^  to  -ccure  workers. 
They  go  f.ar  .alield  in  .advert  ising  .and  scout  ini:  for  laboi'  and 
then  s(  Idoin  in.ike  it  woitli  while  for  the  worker  lo  reiii.aiii 
in  their  employ  by  carefully  selecting,  placing,  and  train- 
ing liim  to  lit  ihe  job  and  rewarding  his  resulting  efhcieiicy. 


IXTRODUCTION 


17 


To    incTcasc    offidcncy    in    procl.u-tion  -  to    check    this 

nu   .  stab  lizo,  and  o„hs,  ,h.  cor.pcration  c.f  thoir  working 
o.ro,   cnploycrs  arc  c.o.npclh.l   to   roco,.,izo  and   to   treat 
e  n.hv.dua    .o.ki^ 

''^  .n  a    narhuH..     So  the  discovon-  of  the  cost  of  labor 
^nover..ne  of  tiu.prin.e  causes  \.f.^ 
intei(>st  in  their  eni[)lovcs. 

Eflfect  of  Organized  Labor  and  Legislation.  -  R,,  other 

Ws    .sides  nu.ives  of  eco,ion,y  l.ve  coii,,ib,ncd  to  t" 
"xne  to  hun,aniz,>  industry.      W!,...v   ih.  conta.'t    between 

n-ter  and  worknian  has  ceased  to  exist,  the  .;.,./::^ 
has  drawn  together,  conscious  of  i,s  needs  and  dencm,  it 

lanj    of  tlie  vohintary  improvements  made  bv  emplove'rs 
worl<m.  conditions  are  in  taci,   .eco^nition  of  th     pm 

:i"'l  .o  forestall  agitation  an.l  union  activity.       r5„t  more 

P''>  's  the  revolutionary  attitude  toward  the  labor  factor 
-'-'--•n-  which  the  unions  have  broud.t  abo,  t  P^^^^^^^^^^^^ 
'I'--",  crystallized   i„to  le,isla.,on.  has  forced     n„iv 

;;;;;;p--vor.i..,    ,n,,,„,.  This  is  evident,  Lntr 

'^'"■'n-ect  which  the  Railroad  Uabilit v  .Act  (H»|  1)  had  on 
--■"'luH.on  of  railroad  employes' accid.aKs.     Thi  ma  ^ 

n.nn^.rwasonlv,.,7,adccrcaseo,-,7perccn,.'"  ''^ 

nfluence  of  the  New  Type  of  Man  in  Industry.       One 
"tlK'i    ia.tor  which  has  accel.a-afc.:  ft- i . 


18 


Tin:  HUMAN  kactok  i\  i\i)Ls'ri{V 


f)f  till'  coiiilil  inns  oi'  wor!-:  t)y  (Mii|)!ovcrs  is  ihi'  :i'i*-Mi1  of  ;i 
now  typr  of  iiulustrial  niaimj^cr  witliin  the  past  quarter  ot  :i 
I'cntmy.  Twenty-live  years  afio  tlie  professions  iiionoi);)- 
lized  the  coliefie  ^rraduute.  To-day  a  colleLi.e  ti-ainiii'j:  is  a 
pr(M'e((ui>ite  for  any  executive  position  in  many  lai'.i^e  enin- 
panies.  Larjic  sealc  industry  now  alitor!)-;  tlic  Ix'st  erur.tiies 
of  hrain  as  W(^I1  as  of  hand  so  that  industrial  sci 'nees  ;ind  i)ro- 
fessions  coinin^te  with  otliers  in  tlie  type  of  m:in  they  arc 
attracting.  This  ni(>ans  a  hroaih'iied  and  inoi-e  seientidc 
pointof  view  lirouiiht  to  hear  on  all  t!ie  pi'olilenis  of  indus- 
trial orpinization. 

Scope  of  Problems  of  Labor  Administration.  The 
lUH'd  for  economy,  the  demands  of  Mp^ani/ed  labor,  th(> 
enactment  of  Labor  lejiislation,  and  the  education  ot  eni- 
ployors  have  within  ri'cent  years  comhined  lo  jiive  a  new 
sijiiiificance  to  the  proMems  of  labor  ailuiini-ti-at  ion  whicli 
hav(>  to  do  with,  —  obtaininii  :,nd  holding  th  '  employe-, — 
technical  traininji;,  educiition,  aii'i  iii'oinoi  ioii,  -- methods 
of  remuneration,  and  of  pi'ox-id'nu;  savings  and  loan  facilities 
with  insurance  against  accident,  sickness,  old  a-;;,',  and  death. 
• — the  length  of  the  workinji  hours,  -  the  work  (aiviroti- 
tnent,  —  moilical  sujiervision,  —  opportunities  for  retrea- 
tion  and  self-developmcnit  on  the  factory  premises,  —  and 
housina;  and  Hviny;  conditions. 

Now  an  International  Experiment.  —  To-il.iy  Atnericm 
manvifacturons  have  surjjassed  other  emnl  lyers  in  their 
efforts  to  attract  and  hold  their  employes.  In  !'.>IS  the 
South  Manchuria  Hailway  Company,  en>ployinu:  :!7,0()() 
.lajvtnese  and  ( 'hinese,  sent  the  hc;id  of  its  welfare  il(|);irl- 
ment  to  the  I'niteil  States  to  stud.\  American  <Mnployers' 
welfare  service.''  Hul  l;dior  ;i(hniuiM  r  d  itm  is  p("culi;ii-  to 
no  country:  it  i-  an  iuternational  experiiiKMit.  The  Com- 
mercial Press  of  Siiatmliai,  (  'hina,  proviiies  for  ihe  iecie:ii  i>iii, 
education,  pensioninji,  housinsj;,  :ind  m("(lical  care  ot  iu 
11,000    emi)loyes.''"     Th(>    Man  Iiuria    Kaibvay    Coinp  my's 


IXTHODCCTIOX 


19 

Wclfaiv   nrparfinonl    mmhvs  t\v(>Ivp  nm<.,.,-.  * 

A::;n:';;;;;;;:^H:s;:^;:;i;:::n;t■r'^'™'■ 
.■tr'::™,rLw\:;;:;;;;^:;;;;r'rr-"-- 

Ki-ncriil  in  so  far  as  i(  is  f„,„„l  ,     ,        ""    "'"  ■"""■  ""'"■ 

;';ii :  ::f;:;:„rv':;;!;r";;„ --- ■'■'"-i""' 

"'<■"<  "f  ].ro,l„clion.  "'■  ""'  "»'  ""•■  """^BO- 


CHAPTER   II 


HIRING   AND   HULDINCx 

Current  Disregard  of  Employment  Methods.  —  Before 
the  war,  when  a  textile  iiianufacturei'  in  Massachusetts 
was  perhaps  huyinu;  his  wool  in  Leicestershire,  his  dyes  in 
(iennany  and  his  machinery  in  i'ennsylvania,  he  was  prob- 
ably waiting  to  "  buy  "'  the  hrst  chance  applicant  at  the 
factory  door  to  fill  the  vacancy  in  his  workinji  force.  More- 
over, he  had  small  reu;ard  for  placing  the  applicant  where 
lioth  the  worker  and  the  industry  would  profit  most  from  his 
labor;  nor  did  he  make  real  effort  to  retain  his  services, 
one-  secm-(Hl,  beyond  offering  him  the  regular,  impersonal 
wa^e  iiayment  of  the  {)inchasins  price  of  his  class  of  labor. 
Such  is  the  average  employer's  careless  attitude  toward 
his  "  human  machinery." 

Prevalence  of  Industrial  Misfit.  —  Current  labor  turn- 
over figures,  both  l)efore  and  durinp;  the  war,  have  revealed 
in  part  the  al)surdity  of  the  assumption  t'aat  any  particular 
iinlustry,  witliout  conscious  effort,  attracts  and  holds  in 
its  en;ploy  those  work(M-s  best  fitted  for  it.  The  physical, 
mental,  and  temperamental  fitness  of  each  employe  for 
the  work  which  he  is  to  do  coiitribiites  to  the  dcveloiMuent 
of  a  continited,  effective  woikinfi  force,  with  a  tendency 
toward  stability.  Such  ;i  condition  of  nuitual  satisfaction 
is  obviously  not  prc^valeiit  in  industry  to-day,  and  it  is  one 
of  the  basic  difliculties,  ihat  of  obtaininji  and  retaining  tlie 
v,-;)rker  l)est  fitted  for  tli(>  work  to  !)e  done,  which  consti- 
tutes the  employment  prol)lem. 

20 


'* 


i  ,1.  -iJ 


HIRrXG  AND  HOLDIXG 


21 


Sources  of  Labor  Supply.  -  Tl.rr.  an-  four  phases  i„ 
employ,nonu  „a,noly:  securin,,  sHo.-tir,.  in.lu,.  in«,  a. 
otaunn.  Hhn.nt  workers.  Choice  prcdieates  c,t  n  i t 
^'■-;,  -  -■''  to  choose  atHl  few  e.nployers  can  rel v  oh'  y 
-'  ti';-  IH-.ldlers-  of  U.bor  who  eo.ne  to  their  doo,s  to 
proy.le  the.n  w.h  the  necessary  quantity  and  qualty  oi 
apphcants  for  en,ployn.ent.  A  .systematic  effort  to  sec-ure 
apphcant.  IS   usually  essential.     But   there  are  sourc      of 

7t{.Tt':::f''^'''''^'^'^-^-  ^  positi;;:^.;; 

as  w  1    '  \'\"!^f^^''''"S  or  pron.oting  a  present  employe 

a    ^^elI  as  by  ],,,,„.  a  new  one.  and  with  greater  assu  ance 
o    success,  u,  that  such  a  selection  is  based  on  a  k^^^^: 
ho  workers  capacity.     Op.nin.  avenues  for  promotion 
and  transfer  create,  an  invaluable  .source  of  labor  suppy 

Job    Analysis    Selection.  -  After    an    adequate      hoiee 
has  been  made  possible  and  .after  analyses  have  been  made 

0  he  individual  equipment  which  makes  for  succes.^in  he 
^''.iM^hol^'f^'  -nains  equally  important  to  develop 
•    ih-  ;li.scoverins  the  a,)plicant  who.se  prob- 

^uf,},cst<d  and  a  few  have  proven  their  value.     Interviews 

Xr'^'^U'^^^    ^'"''    Phy-al.-investi,at^nr^ 

1  ei  n.(.s,  studies  of  personality  and  previous  e.xperionce 
all  play  a  part  in  the  process  of  selection  ^-M^eiLnce, 

Induction.  -  When   the  applicant   lias   been   chosen   the 
Moxt  step  ,s  to  secure  his  active  cooperation  and  ZZ  ^ 

jno    I.  husiness  organization  of  which  he  is  to,:  a  pa" 
H'>  <  utics  must  be  explained,  his  superior's  interest    nhi^n 

-1.JI  and  he  nuist  be  trained  to  be^^^^^^ 

•'t    of   the    industry.     This    neces.sitates  "  following  up '' 

hi.n.     It  h<.  has  been  placed  in  the  wrong  niche  and  his 
.hsconnnuance  is  contemplated,  at  his  own  or  h  isupeHor' 

su.«.stion.  It  uKiy  still  ..possible  to  find  ano^X^^ 
the    organization    whi.^h   will    b.-tt.-r    fif    1,,....   ,,;..   ..^i,    „'" 


22 


THE  HUMAN  FACTOR   IN   INDUSTRY 


iiuUi^tiy's  noods.  Conference  and  explanation  may  re- 
move .lifficulties  and  grievances,  and  as  a  result  a  successful 
worknum  be  developed  from  uu  apparent  failure. 

Development. -Retaining  efficient  workers  mvolves  the 
lUMT^ity  <.r  promoting  an  employe  as  fast  as  his  ability  wa;- 
rtnts  The  recognition  of  ability  helps  to  produce  a  satis- 
fied plant  p(>rsonnel  and  an  indispensable  esprit  dc  awps. 
F.t-ibli-liing  a  careful  policy  of  promotion  makes  of  the 
emi.h.ye's  personal  ambition  "a  centripetal  instead  of  a 
centrifugal  force  "  in  the  industry. 

The  Employmknt  IMacuinery 
Foreman  as  Employment  Manager.  -  From  the  ver- 
satile master  ..f  the  small  \\orksh(.p  -  buyer,  workman, 
ami  seller  -  has  descended  the  modern  foreman  of  the  large 
scale  industry.  But  with  the  growing  intricacy  of  super- 
vising machine  production  the  foreman  has  been  gradually 
relieved  of  most  functions  of  general  management  and  his 
attention  confined  to  the  actual  r  neess  of  production.  Al- 
though the  organization  of  indu  b.H>n  divide.l  and 
subdivided  and  spcialists  have  assumeu  '  of  the  varied 
functions  of  the  (nuly  master  ^^orkman,  the  complex 
ixvf]  sp-M.ial  fund  ion  of  finding  and  placing  workers  rests  on 
tli.  usremans  ^il,.uldors. 

Complex  Duties. -Consider  the  duties  ot  th.  foreman 
in  <omv  shops  as  outlined  by  Mr.  Fisher:  They  set  speeds 
and  dcTtl.s  of  cut,  decide  on  the  best  angles  and  shapes  of 
tools  the  best  cooling  agcnits,  the  kind  of  steel  to  use,  set 
piece  rates,  route  the  work  in  the  department,  keep  data 
on  idle  ecuiipment  time,  act  as  .stock  chasers,  adjust  differ- 
ences as  to  wages,  bivak  in  new  men,  and  dis.apline  and 
dischann'  insubordinate  and  incompetent  men.'  Un- 
questionably tlu'  f<.reinan  must  be  relieved  of  the  duty  of 
hiring  and  firin-  mni  if  the  human  factor  m  industry  is  to 

_ :,.,.  .l,w>  mH  ,  n+inll 


HIRING  AND  HOLDING 


23 


skm!)  tf?  J"^^^"^-- Moreover,  though  technically 
sk  lied  the  usual  foreman  has  risen  from  the  ranks  and  is 
not  apt  to  have  the  power  of  judj^ing  nien  as  well  as  nm- 
chmery.  Bes.des  l,..n,  too  busy,  h,.  is  too  close  to  the 
work  to  ^vt  u  proper  persp,.,.tivc.  „f  its  requirements.  The 
selec.t,on  of  workers  in  his  hands  is  apt  to  bec,.n,>  a  matter 
of  iXTsonal,  prejudiced  likes  and  dislikes. 

Job  Selling.  -Not  only  is  this  true  hut.  where  the  fore- 
n.-.    ures,  t   e  clanger  ,.f  "job  seHi,.,,  "  is  alwavs  presen 
and  .f  carried  on  it  is  ..rtain  to  pr„du,.e  a  mediocre,  dl: 
contented    worK.n,    fonv.     This    is    ,.sp,H-ially    difhcu  t    to 
avoi,,   where   non-Knglish-speakin,  groups  a.v  dealt      it 
If  the  e..,p,„„„,„^   f^„,,,i,,,,   j^   _^^^^    ,..ntrali.od.     In   Ohio 
in   191(.,   the   Industrial   Commission   foun.l    "job   soUimr  " 
carried  on  m  at  least  six  large  industrial  plants  'in  the  State 
emploj.ng  approximately  40,()()0  men.     The  pri.'e  of  a  job 
varied  fro.n  S5  to  m,  and  the  money  was  sometimes  pocke    d 
by  the  foreman  alone,  sometimes  divided  betwcn  the.  fore- 
man an.l  one  or  two  sub-foremen.^'     This  practic-e  is  fre- 
quently  accompanied    by   bribing   for   promotion    and    oc- 
casionally by  dummy  names  on   the  pay  roll,  whose  pay 
envelopes  reach  the  foreman's  po.ket.  ^^ 

Absence  of  Cooperation.  -  Put    oven   with    foremen   of 

hi     uKl  m-      ""'  ''"  ^1"''""  ''  '""''^"^-  •«  --itablv 
a  hit    nd  miss  process.     Then,  too.  there  is  an  unavoidabfe 

la.k  of  «K)peration  between  department  heads  in  th.  matter 
of  transferring  men  when  they  have  been  wronglv  pk  .m 
ormi.      K.,.aoff.     A, arge  steel  corporation  it  ;t 

o   lune   a, Ivertisod    recently   for  .s,>ven    hundn-d   co  nmon 

a>-rs.mdtohavelai<loffonethousan^^^ 
P-tnent  on  the  same  day.     Employment  is  e.ss.ntially  a 
I'lant  and  not  a  departmental  problem.  ^ 

,1?Z^^!^'^  Employment  Department.  -  The  brief  state- 
■••  -  t:r.  i;ic.o.c.u^  mvoived  m  sccunng  and  holding  an 


24 


THE   tlUMAX   FACTOR    IX   IXDfTSTRY 


efficient    v;nrkins   foivo   reveals   the   futility   of  leaving   its 
execution  to  the  detacluM!  foreman.     They  include  : 

0)  -Mol)ilizin-  the  sources  of  labor  s^upplv  within  and 
without  the  plant  ; 

(2)  Analy/irif:  and  classifyinj:  the  requirements  of  the  jobs 
of  the  entire  plant  ; 

(3)  Seleciinfi  and  pliiciusr  applicants  for  work  accordin.- 
to  their  physiral,  mental,  and  temperamental  fitness  for 
the  specific  jol) ; 

(})  Indu.ti„jr  ;,n.l  "following  up"  the  new  employe 
until  adjustment  is  complete; 

C5)   Retaining  and  developing'  the  old  employe. 
The   np,,ivciation   of   the    value  of   >uch  a  broad    program 
indicates    perhaps    mos,    clearly    the    ne.'d    ..f   a    (vntralized 
einployuH.nt  bureau  with  officers  of  special  abiliiv  and  pro- 
f''ssi(.ii.al  ti'aini  ,;  . 

Its  Recent  Growth.  -  Rut  the  centrali/e.l  euij.Iovment 
bureau,  whi.li  relieves  ti,e  foreman  of  responsii,ility  and 
makes  metli.Hl.  ,,f  hirin;^  ,.,nd  firiim  unilnrni  thiouirhout 
the  plant,  is  rare.  In  ini:.  a  c.anva>s  of  tu-elve  business  bouses 
lyinii  aloic^  twuty  s,|u..,r..>  .r  ,  .treet  in  the  I'hiladelphia 
textile  district.  sl,„w,  !  ,,ght  left   hiring  an.l  (irinfr  ab- 

solutely to  the  foremen,  three  -,.,ve  .a  supcriiit..n.lent  sH^rht 
supervisory  powe,-.  it  the  r,,rem;in  wa<  ineflicieni.  w'ule  in 
""'••  the  head  of  the  firm  did  the  hirinu.'  Rvn  in  the 
lar^r,.,.  uHJu.trie.  which  l-.ave  now  deride.l  that  emplovmeiit 
'•"<l"n-.-  th."  <pe,  i;d  din.tioi,  ,,f  ;,„  empl<,yment  .leparlment, 
i'-d,vel.,pi,.„t  is  of  recent  }:rowlh.  An  invest  i-a1i<m  cover- 
iuti  thirty-seven  l.arp'  New  amlaiid  lirms  showed  that  few 
''.■i\e  had  such  .■!  dep;,rlmcni  f,,r  more  than  five  or  hx 
,  .rs  ;  one  dcpartmeni  w.is  sixteen  vear^  .,Id.  two  were  nine 
.vears  old,  and  a>  yet  twelve  had  none.'  Thoudi  oi  r.vcnt 
•'iinm.  tliH  specialization  of  the  function  of  emplovn.ent  is 
oxteiLliici  i.tliidiy  ami  more  and  more  progressive  tirms  are 
adnpiiiig  it. 


HIRING   AND   HOLDrXG 


25 


ft 


Objections  to  It.  -  It  may  bo  arg;„.l  (!,,,(  ,i  small  i„- 
'lustiy  .annot  affonl  an  (Mnployt.inr.t  .Lpaitnicnf  arnl  (hat 
ev.'n  ,n  th,>  lar^.T  in.lusf.y,  whil.  it  n.ay  !„>  ,u.,.,1.h1  ii,  (inu-s 
';'  '''•"";  ^*''><'"y.  it  i>  net  uaiTanh.,1  \n  r.  ti.no  „f  business 
H.T'Ts-,,,,.  or  u,  slack  seasons.     .\s  Mr.  Kriss  savs,  h.mvv.-r  • 

Willi.'  a  vm-  Muall  o.-oanizatioii  niav  n..t  l,o  al.Ie  to  atTo-d 

oven  .HUM,e.s,mu-hoso  s.,l(>funr(i„„  is  tlu.  business  of,., imloy. 
""■tit.  tins  a.'tivify  shonl,]  ueverthel.ss  be  re.'Ofrnize,!  as  a 
separate  and   most   important   funrii,,n,   ;,n,l   in  .-u.'h   ra-e.s 

>''nninis(,Mv,I  by  the  niana-rr  ..,•  assis-anf  niana-er  i.ini.self '•  ^ 
It  sh.,uld  be  b..ni..  m  nni.l.  ioo,  in  answer  f„  tli(>  .seeon.I  ob- 
joet.nn,  th.at   in  a  tin..  „f  sla.'k  work  all  unavoidable  lavinu- 
o.f  should  !.e  done  with  the  needs  ^  pre.,.,,!   a.id  fufu're - 
<'f  tin.  enln-e  plant  in  mind,  rathrr  than  .,f  tlie  separate  de- 
P'"-<'"-',it.     The  employment   bureau  shouid  pool  thr  labor 
'•oserve  <.f  the  plant  and  thus  ^nv.aily  r.-dure  ,!,.■  mstlv  turn- 
over.    A  period  of  slaek  work,  nu.reov.a-,  admits  of  rxtcnlrd 
ti-'usfn-   and    tramino-  of   .anploy-s    in    dinVn-nt    proees.ses 
I'o'-'l'.v  iayin.tr  (he  foundation  f,„   ^  more  eflirienl  and  in- 
tclliy:ently  cocpcrativc^  working;  forc(>. 
Economy  of  Centralized  Bureau  in  Reducing  Turnover 
""■  -vonomv   of  iuMallinj^r  rmploynu.nt    department,   is 
••«'":'■>•    nppan.nt.      Th,.    D,.nnison     Manufaeturin^;    ('o,u' 
P.".y  found  that    'luring  the  first  (wo  years  of  their  emplov- 
""->"  <lepart,nen(,  a  n^lucrd  (,n-nover  *  h,ad  netted  them'a 

>avmK  of  ^2A,,.(),),  Hiar,n,^  S,l,)  (o  (he  eost  of  repIaeiuK  eaeh 
<-xpenonee,|  hand.''     The   (^ulis  Publidur,.  Con.panv  e.ti- 

;"•■''•■''"'•"■  '"  <">'■  ,v.':n-  af(rr  thr  m(rodur(,on  of  a  nai- 
"•''■'''''  ••"'Pl".vn...n(  bup.au,  Ihrre  !,h|  br,a,  a  saving  of  ^<)() 
I'--  I'"'M,„   -l,,,,!,,,,   „„    ,,,„   ,„,,^^^.,    ,,^^^,^^^^^^     (la.  apphrant 

TT  ,T  ^'''""■^'  ^"'•"  '"  "'-'^->  «'>.>.i'-   In  inn, 

,"   '""'   ,^'"""    <  '■■"I'^"^^-   i-M-du..ed   (he  centralized   en.- 
Pl"yn,ent   bureau.     The  pohcy  of  ,!,..  bureau  i.  tolran.fer 
•^  '"'•"'  as  many  as  six  or  eiiiut   (imes  until  a,  plac  is  found 
♦  Fur  ili'fiuiti.ju  ul  l:ib„r  turn,,vcr.  >r,  pap.  lo. 


20 


THH    HUMAN    FACTOR    IX   TXDUSTRY 


\vh('i'(>  h(M;iii  (io  tlio  woik  and  earn  liis  $'>  a  day.  This  policy 
icduccd  lh(.  <liscliaruv-;  from  8890  in  19i;5  to  27  in  191.')/ 

Tlic  Hayes  .Maniii.icturinu;  Company  of  Detroit  cut  thoir 
(iMuiiver  in  two  in  tlie  fii'st  y(\ir  of  the  opera  m  of  an  em- 
ployment iiuicau,  and  in  tiie  next  fnur  month  I  he  turnover 
was  mnrc  than  rut  in  two  aiiain.  More  sifinificaiit  even  is 
till'  fart  that  this  ri'(hictiou  was  jiccoinpani''d  hy  a  30 
per  cent  increase  in  output  per  niaii.^  The  Solvay  Tom- 
paiiy  of  Detidil  in  191t)  hid  ati  employmiMit  Imreau  in  one 
of  its  two  phints,  the  Scmet-Solvay  (Coke)  Company,  hut 
not  in  the  Solvay  Process  Company  which  adjoined  it. 
Tlie  latter  company  was  haxiiiu;  lahor  diiruailf ies,  ami  to 
icmedy  them,  the  cm!»loymenf  manager  of  the  Seinef- 
Sdlwiy  C(imi)an\'  iudk  oNcr  i'h'  iiiiiuir  and  firing  in  both 
plants,  l)c^inninu:  .May,  191(i.  In  May  tli(>  cdmhined  averaji;*' 
(luiiover  was  10  per  cent  ;  in  .!une  the  turnover  (Iroi)ped  to 
S.:!  pel'  rent:  in  July  it  was  8  per  cent;  in  August,  t.l 
per  cent  :  in  Scjitcniher.  '^.'-l  pei'  cent  ;  in  Octoiier.  i?  per 
cut;  in  ?No\cml>er,  '_'•>  jxt  cent;  in  Deceniher,  "J.  I  p(>r 
cent;  and  during  these  same  nmnths  the  .average  labor 
t  urn(i\'ei'  in  I  )et  i<iit  "  w.as  jum|)in^  up  !i\'  leaps  and  hounds."  '■* 
Sueh  re-ult^  ij:i\e  ciimplete  e\id(aii'e  of  the  \alue  of  cen- 
tra!i/;"d  eniplnyment  management. 

In  Relieving  Foremen  or  Officers  of  the  Firm.  The  em- 
pki\  nie.ai  department  hiin^s  with  it  an  .additional  economy  in 
relie\ini:  the  forem.an  of  the  re-ponsiliiliiy  of  hiiiiiu;  and 
liiiuji  and  allow  inti  him  to  de\-ote  his  efforts  to  scianauK  th(» 
maxinaim  output.  .\n  e\(ai  tiicitei'  sa\iti)i  is  effected  hy 
introducinu  a  eenfali/eil  I'lnploymcnt  d<'p.artment  where 
the  int(a'\  iewinti'  of  applicants  h.is  t'lken  the  linie  ot"  ukmii- 
l)ers  or  otlicers  of  a  lirm  or  orj'ani/.ation.  'i'lie  conintr(iller 
of  one  institution  whiac  an  (inployment  department  was 
0.st;il)lisiieil  said  that  he  w.i-  iherehy  saN'cd  one  da>'  a  week, 
wliieh,  sinre  he  r<'c<<ivc<l  a  .saliiry  of  !<1(),(M)()  ;i  yeai',  w;is 
e(|uiv  .dent  to  a  $1(100  ■avin'j'  in  the  time  of  one  m.in  .alone.'" 


rilRIXO   AXD    iIOLDIXG 


27 


I 


Centralized  Bureau  Not  as  Yet  General.  —  Thoso  osfi- 
nmtes  mv  su^^,n.stiv«^  but  a  nioasurom.'.il  i„  dollars  and  cents 
ol  the  valiK-  (.1  an  ctnploynicnt  dopartinoiit  is  as  yet  scairoly 
practicai)le.     X..   two   firms   estimate    their    tmu„ver Costs 
alike,  and  employment  records  ami  statistics  are  not  stand- 
ardized.    T!ie    work    is    in    an    experimental    stage      The 
oMe<f   T.n.ployment   Managers'  Association  was  found.vl  in 
Bo.ston   in    1!)12,  and  n.,uks   th..   In-mning  of  e,npIov.n,.nt 
rnanaKement   as  a   nrognized   profession.     Sin.-e   ti.en    like 
associations  have  heen   formed  in   tvv.  ,,f  the  largest  cities 
HI   tlic  c.Hmtry  and  enroll   nearly   H)(K)  firms  n     These  as 
sociations   have   as   yet    ,lnn(>   little   more   than    make   sug- 
gestions  for  future  <!ev.>Iopment,  few  meml,ers  having  any 
past  ai  lievr'ments  to  r,  late. 

Introduction   of  Employment  Bureau.-    1„  spite  of   the 
generally  acc.pted  theoretical  value  of  an  ..mpIoym(>nt  .|e- 
partment    and    its    in.Hcated   practical    value,   certain   diffi- 
•'"llies  may  .arise  m  its  intro.lucti.m.     The  fon>man,  or  other 
P<'r-on  m  ch.rg,-.  refuses  to  heliev,.  that   h(.  is  not   th.>  best 
.I'l'lg''  "f  the  man  for  his  own  work  .and  resents  the  loss  of 
P'cstig,.   winch    ooe.    with    the   power   of   hiring   .mhI    firing 
I'nt    til..   coup,.ration   .;nd    inleivst    of    the   foivmen    are   es- 
sentia!   to  success.      Without    their   cooperation   it    is   impos- 
HMe  to  draw  up  jol,  speciti.at  ion>  .and  make  adequaf  pro- 
VMnn   for  transferi-;    r   ,„en   who  have   not   "  ma.le  goo.l  " 
.'"    '""■    ''"!'••"•' ""'i'    '"   another,    .ami    for   pronmlinu    men 
'"Stead  ot   l.rmuing  men  from  outride  f„,  Uie  higher  posi- 
tions.  ' 

To  gain  the  foremen's  support  it  ha-  Im-.-u  f,,und  |„..|  i„ 
7'"'  ''•^""■^  '"'  "-'■■  "'"■!'•  "Pi>'i<'>i  .d.oui  the  introduction 
"  •"'  '■inplnvment  department  rather  than  to  /,//  ih.au 
;''";'''  "  ^''■"•=-  "  I'as  l„vn  iiMalled  Th..  Fore  Kiv.M  Ship- 
'""'''""    <'"'-pniation   -ol-,,,!   ,h,.   pn.i.l..,,,   I.v   appomtm;;  a 

"7""""' '"    rnr..m..,i,    merham.s,    aii.l    ..Ifiee    nua,    who 

'""•""I  '!"•  '"'.eau,  after  stu.|yi„g  the  plans  pro|>o.se.l  .and 


28 


THH   HUMAX  FACTOR   TX   INDUSTRY 


adopted  by  other  fiiins.'-  One  larjjo  finn  held  a  cotiferonre 
of  six  huiidr(>d  forcineii  1o  consu  ■  with  an  (>xprrt  on  the 
various  p  '  U'lns  of  eiiiployinent  and  niana^ennnt  of  the 
phuit  p<  iiK'l.'''  Suoh  conferences  inifiht  well  precede 
the  inaugurati'.n  of  ji  employment  hureau.  Whatever 
difficulties  arise  can  lie  (\'isi1y  overcome  with  tact,  and  the 
result  will  certainly  warrant  the  etLjrt  and  the  immediate 
cost. 


SEt'rui\(;  Applicants 

In  th(>  absence  of  a  thorou-ildy  orjianized  market,  the 
employment  manaRer  must  make  a  survey  of  the  sources 
of  supply  and  evaluate  the  possible  methods  of  obtaininfi 
applicants.  At  present,  vacancies  may  be  tilled  from  anions 
those 

(1)  applying:  for  work  at  the  plant  or  by  mail  ; 

(2)  recomuKMided  b\  present  em|)loyers  or  ])y  a  third 
person  ; 

(;i)  reai'hed  by  adv(ali.>ing  in  newspapers,  circulars,  etc., 
or  by  scout  illy;  ; 

(4j  fiiaduatinti  or  leavinjj;  scliools  ; 

(."))   re^;istei(^d  I'v  (Miiploymeiit  aijencies  ; 

(ti)  recommended  for  promotion  ami  transfer  within  the 
plant. 

Personal  Applications  -  \\)  Invest itrat ion  indicates  tliat 
most  firms  ivly  principally  on  tlie  newspaper  column  and 
the  "peddler"  of  labor  for  securiii;^  their  (Muployes.  In 
HMl,  the  New  'N'oik  ("onimi'-sioM  on  Ilmployment  found 
tiiat  out  of  seven  hmidi'cd  and  lifty  employers,  four  hundreil 
and  fifty-ei^rht,  or  over  tilt  per  cent,  "could  ,d\v;iv^  get  ;ill 
the  hel|)  they  wanted  .iiid  practically  all  of  them  hired  their 
forces  from  people  who  made  pergonal  application  at  their 
plants";  (wo  himdred,  or  'J7  peicent,  ailvi'rtised  for  liel]); 
fifty  used  employment    apiieies,  and   ten  depended  on  trade 


niFUXG   AXD    riOLDIXG 


29 


unions."     m  an   invostiffation   ma.l.  hv   ,ho   Xation.!    V. 
donation  ot  (orporatinn  S..lHK>k  nnHn..,.n  on,  of  fo/tv.L 

TlH>  ol.l  "want  shin^l..-  with  th.  "  pr,l.liin<,  -  of  lal.or 
has  l,.n,  h..,.n  nn.|..r  f,n.  fn,,,.  tl,.  stan.ipoint  ^f  tho  ''  ' 
OSS  num.       I'„-  •!;--""-'  ^-"  'I'-tan-ipoint  of    t 

n.anl.ss  ,,,,.  .  Th.  n.an  who  i.  ou,  of  wo,!.,,,  ..,  ! 
'"^  '">  --vi'-s  .n,lis,.n,un,atoIy   i.  apf   to  I,,  .loin-  .o  In- 

;--■      '''■-nvi,iual,inn..ani„.t,Hp..™      '     i' 

P''  ^^-  P'-'> -tn,,.  ns..lf  fnun   havin,  ,o  ,;n.Mh.  nnn  w 
i>api-MstolH.a,th.,at.Mvh.nava,.an..vo,.,ans  " 

Application   Blanks    -    Tim   ..,.„  i    r      "    i  ■•  •     '. 

*"'"Vrr''i --"-"'-' '^■^::'':  ;:;:;r 

"""',''''"'''■'• ' I  ^'"'1  'i-iii.'.!  r,„  f„„„,,  ,vr,.,-,.„  .   V 

;::;t;;'';'''V'"/'''''''"'™''^' '^ .i..ml    .„';; 

'  :;t;,"- ""•'"- >'-■■<': i»..w,.M  T  : 

^^""  •^''"'    '''"''rs   ot    apph.al  ,,n    siioi,|,|    1„.   .,^l-,.,l    f 

^•'^'^r^':/'""''-''•■'■-.ulaMl!,  .::;,:;:;: 

""Pnssii.l,.,  I,|.,nl<s  ran  1„.  srnt   i,,  ,1,,,,,      "'I,      . 

"^-■'-' 01.  w,ii  „„,...  i,  „.,.;;,,;::,;;""'•  ''""''■v..iop„H.nt 

J:;,:,'''''''  ^'  ^''''•'•''•''   ''^'    <''^'-'l.nat..nalfo,.fu,ur,.n.f- 
W  '.ttra.t  a  ..pnio,-  Hass  of  n.on  who  ar.  nor  out  of 

f'')  postpone  th,>  oncaunmont  i,.  onirr  to  ,li<p<.|  ,1...  fr  sf 
""Pn'ss.onnia.i,.  I.vth.appli.ant;  ^ 

''''   eljitiiint,.  floaters. 

"'"";'"  ••'PPl'-"on   hiank  .sh„„l,,   |,„  ,^.    ,   ,..,„,,;, 
tia'  cundition  ol   tl...   labor  nen-L,., '■     .     ,     ,    ''"'' 

•    I--  .....   ..1     urj)i  CB- 


J 


30 


TTIF,   HUM  AX   FACTOR    IX    IXDUSTRY 


"^ion  and  nnfinplnvinotit  its  tcnn  of  uscfulnoss  will  ho  longer 
than  ill  a  |)on()(l  of  industrial  at'tivity  when  coinix'tition 
for  labor  is  keen  and  thn  workers  nov(>  about  restlessly  in 
response  to  the  enticeinenls  hcdd  out  by  employers.  It 
will  vary  also  with  the  class  of  labor  involved,  the  unskilled 
manual  laborer  being  a  bird  of  passage,  gone  in  a  few  days  or 
we(>ks,  while  at  the  other  extreme  is  the  highly  skilled,  or 
technically  equipped,  or  executive  person,  who  is  more 
stable  and  may  lie  available  for  several  years  after  the  first 
application  is  mad(>.  Aliove  all,  tliis  varial)I(>  (luantity  is 
ail'ected  by  the  character  of  the  tirm,  which,  if  it  offers  un- 
usually attractive  wages,  hours,  and  opportunities,  may 
draw  from  its  filed  application  blanks  correspondingly 
longer  than  other  firms.  In  the  case  of  the  Ford  Motor 
Company,  where  at  one  time  the  crowd  clamoring  for  work 
got  so  large  that  they  "  had  to  turn  the  hose  on  them  to 
keep  the  crowd  from  breaking  in  one  side  of  the  building," 
and  when^  they  now  receive  Ix'tween  2000  and  .'iOOO  appli- 
cations by  mail  (>'ery  day,  the  application  blank  becomes 
an  absolute  necessity."'  It  is  a  means  (jf  separating  the 
wheat  fi-om  the  chaff  imd  |)rovides  an  almost  permanently 
useful  file.  Th(>  life  of  Ihi'  apjilicatirMi  blank  of  both  small 
and  large  emi)loyers  will  !>(>  delermined  by  these  same 
factfirs.  A  helpful  device*  is  th(^  division  of  the  blanks  into 
a  "live"  and  a  "dead"  file,  the  "live"  being  kejit  up  to 
d;it(>  by  weeding  out  all  ;';i)i)lic;itions  made  too  tar  in  the 
past  to  be  dependable.  The  "deail  "  file  offers  a  last  r(>sort 
if  the  "live"  file  fails." 

Recommendations:  From  Employes.  -  (2)  In  (lues- 
tioning  some  thirty  firms  ;is  to  the  value  of  the  dilTercnt 
methods  of  getting  ajiplicaiits  for  work,  Mr.  Kelly  found  a 
genera!  agreement  about  those  recommen<led  by  emjiloyes. 
Twelve  firms  thought  them  the  most  important  source  of 
all  and  live  classed  thnu  ;i>  very  imi)<)rtant.  The  ("heney 
Company  encourages   its  employe-;  to  liring  in   Uwinli  l)y 


1 


HIRING   AND   HOLDING 


31 


offering  a  rasi,  n.nus  to  the  omf)loyo  if  his  friend  proves 
^j.acto,y.^  Joseph  and  Feiss  O.n.pany,  in  ClevU.  h1, 
and  (he  Dcnuson  Manulaefurin^r  Company  use  this  source 
extensu-elv  It  worlds  well  in  a  foreign  labor  group  and 
espooallv  ,f  an  ellort  .s  Uung  n.a.lo  to  secure  a  new  racial 
Rroup.  It  ,s  ,.„  all  tin.es  a  stabilizing  force  ui  the  personnel 
of  the  plant  and  .f  careful  selective  n.ethods  are  usld  in  the 
first  place  the  en.ploye's  fric-nd..  and  rclatu-cs  are  apt  to  be 
of  a  c;)rresp()n.hngiv  good  type. 

'i^'"'  <'urtis  Publishing  Company,  on  th.  contrary,  will 
-nploy  no  one  who  has  a  relative  i„  the  .-onipanv    n  Tny 

ca,mc.ty/M.-«!)al.ly  to  avoi,l  the  <langer  of  fa!oriiis,n  a  d 
of  an  agon.zu.g  en.ployes  whose  relatives  caruu.t  b..  accepted 
^•"  '   "'<■  -''Ploye  is  asked  to  fill  out  a  blank  stating  whVht 
n_K.n     ...  re  .tu-e  is 

>  .ok  and  ,.mplo,-n.ent,  the  employe's  feeUr.g  of  responsi- 

lang...    uf   Ins    sugg<.stu,g    unsuitable    material.     Such 

-  a,v  son.e.unes  distributed   periodically  among  em- 

>     .     More,n-er    .t  should  be  fully  understood  th^  the 

a      .  ,ons  of  each  applicant  are  subject  to  the  impartial 

•nutuu  ot  tlieemi)lovment  manager 

From  a  Third  Person.  -  En.ploying  persons  recommended 

y    a   thud    r.erson    other   th.an   an    en.plove  or  a  regular 

Z^\  '-•o'""..  into  disfavor.     The  judgn.,..   on  S 

u:,.  1        "?',""    "   '""'"'    '^   ^'■''''"»   <i-"terested 
•""'  "sua  ly  m,..de  without  ade<,uate  knowle<lge  of  the  firm's 

;-•'-     An  en,>k,.er  will  rarely  wish  ,o  relv  on         l'  "t 

<la       of    a,,phcant,    becau.se    (he    recommendation    is 
--l.y  an  othcer  or  ,irn.nH.nn.er,  will  often  h^^^^^ 

'     '     '"  '•'■-<>  ul.er,-  a  nu.nlMT  of  eu,plovn...ut   managers 

;  :;n;:';h  ■"'"■*•'^*'" 'T''^'"- 

appiuants    uho.se   .services    (hev    .•.■mMMt    i j;..<„... 


TUK   HUMAN    FACTOR   IX   INDUSTRY 


Iti  all  cases,  howcvrr,  the  rccdiiiiiKMidation  should  he  sub- 
ject to  tlu>  i('\ie\v  of  the  eniiiloyineiit  inaiiaLU'r,  ami  his  de- 
cision as  to  th(>  suitaiiility  of  the  applicant  should  lie  final. 

Advertising.  —  I ;f)  The  newspaper  '•want  ad,""  although 
subject  to  much  ciiticivin,  holds  its  place  a^  on<'  of  the  most 
common  methods  of  sc 'uriiisi  ajjplicant-.  For  obtaining 
younsi  or  semi-skilled  v  r,!k(>is,  it  is  perhaps  unequalod. 
Its  "ireatest  weakness  is  that  it  is  undiscriminatinfi  and  con- 
se(iuently  entails  considerable  (>xp(-nse  in  the  weedinji;  out 
of  "  midesiiable  "'  applicants.  The  tot.al  amount  t'xpended 
in  the  "  want  ad  "  colunms  is  veiy  large.  In  New  York 
State  it  is  estimated  that  2(M)0  n(nvsi)apers  cany  yearly 
some  SOO, ()()()  columns  of  "  help  wanted  "  advertisements 
at  a  cost  to  employers  and  employes  of  .S2(),U0(),()()(),  or  §5 
per  person  employ<-d  in  the  State.-'^  Another  .serious  diffi- 
culty is  that  when  advert isin-;,  comi)etin<r  empl<«yers  are 
t(Mnpted  to  offer  illusory  attractions,  which  result  in  a  futile 
interchange  of  employes  without  ensuing  benefit  to  em- 
ployeis  or  workers. 

Except  in  speciid  instances,  it  is  b(>st  tliat  an  advertise- 
ment give  in  detail  the  different  positions  to  be  fill(>d,  with 
their  respect ixc  duties,  hours,  etc.  The  more  exact  the 
statement,  the  fewei'  will  be  the  applicants  who  appear  and 
the  more  nearly  will  those  applying  meet  the  re(|uir(Mnents 
of  the  positions  to  be  lilled.  Special  and  genuine  induce- 
ments, such  as  welfare  activities,  are  listed  by  some  com- 
panies to  advantage. 

"Blind"  or  "Open."  Then  !■  much  disagroei  f  as 
to  the  ielati\e  merits  of  tlu'  "  blind  "'  and  "open  "  adver- 
tisement. Those  in  fav(jr  of  the  foiinei'  claim  that  it  auto- 
matically eliminates  much  hopeless  materi.il.  ,\  ( 'urtis 
Publishing  Company  emj)loyment  managi'i'  thinks  the 
"only  icdriuiiuii  i'ealmf"  of  ihe  "  o|)en  "  advertisement 
is  the  rapidity  with  which  the  temporary  worker  may  be 
secLU-ed.-'     Bi.t     the     "  blind  "     advertisement    defeats   its 


niRTNT,   AND   IIOLDfXG 


33 


own  onds  hpc;uiso  it  dons  tint  <,h,.„  wi     ■ 

^''•';''>'-j''advertis.nu.d:;;d   ,;  /  ;;:;';;^T^ 

-H.  soc.un.d  by  statin,  in  an  '^.p^:  ,^^^    t^ '^^^^^^^^^ 
Pli.'afons  ,n  writing,  will  !,.  .c.nsidered  ^   "^^ 

l<'nBp.T,„,l  i„  I.,I7    ,„;,""■'  ","*"'■"■  ^'Ivn-lis,,!  r,„.  a 

i„. ,;;,,2i ,  : '"  ""■  .'■'■'"I'-'v  i"  «-.s,o, v,.,-ti,,- 

'"^'atc  finnadvcrtis,,!  i,,  ,1,0   •  -^"''IIht   Nrw   V  „rk 

^vith.HU    sta.inu    tint    ,1,-   ,  '  ^"  ''"'•'   '"  ''''^••■""'^ 

roL, >,".!'"::''' '^•:':^^^-''^--''''-f''n.i..d  i,oniv,f  1,0 

i,'"'^^^"    '''''''   '■'"•'■  """"''^-     1"  Mnne  states  ad- 


m 


34 


TIIK    HUMAN'   FACTOR   IX    IXDUSTRY 


vortisins  <>f  this  Iciiul  is  illcsHl ;  in  :ill  it  is  unwise-.  It  preju- 
dices tlio  employr  ;uul  makes  it  difficult  for  lumcst  omployers 
to  secure  i)roper  results  from  letritimate  advertising.  Al- 
though few  cases  of  fraudulent  adveitisiim  are  reported 
by  the  victims,  in  one  year  the  Commissioner  of  Licenses 
in  New  York  investigated  two  hundred  and  ten  complaints.-" 
Open,  honest,  detai!e<i  advertising,  though  costly,  is  a 
successful  way  to  secure  work(>rs.  Dishonest  advertising 
secures  the  worker  only  to  lose  him  again. 

"Positions  Wanted."  — The  exi(-nt  to  which  the  "posi- 
tions wanted  "  colunms  can  In-  utilized  will  depend  in  large 
measure  on  the  grade  of  employe  souglit  and  the  condition 
of  the  labor  market.  Only  the  higher  grades  of  workers 
advertise  and  few  of  these  will  hav(>  to  resort  to  advertise- 
ments in  a  time  of  industri' '  activity.  Newspapers  and 
magazines  that  have  special  l.lue  lists  "  of  investigated 
advertisements  become  practically  employment  agencies 
and  are  certainly  to  be  consulted.  In  order  to  secure  special 
workers  iKnvspaper  columns  are  of  great  assistance.  Even 
experts  may  be  obtaincnl  through  the  "positions  wanted" 
columns  of  some  newspapers. 

Scouting.  —  A  successful  scouting  and  advertising  scheme 
was  recently  adopted  by  th(>  Fore  River  Shipbuilding  Com- 
pany. A  folder  was  distributed  in  many  industrial  centers, 
giving  working  hours,  wages,  overtime  pay,  bonuses,  a  com- 
plete list  of  the  trades  opened,  and  attached  was  a  time 
table  of  trains  to  (tie  yards.-  Largely  by  means  of  this 
foUler,  the  force  was  (juickly  doubled  from  .')0()()  to  10,000. 
One  remarkable  instance  of  scouting  occurred  in  tlu^  fall  of 
1017,  when  a  nnmitions  corporation  in  Peiuisylvania  sent 
scouts  with  large  haiidliills  with  a  picture  of  gold  spilling 
out  of  a  bag  on  one  -i.lc  of  the  sheet  to  the  factory  districts 
in  Philadelphia  at  closing  hour.  The^e  handbills  were  dis- 
tributed and  a  <|)eci:il  train  was  provide(l  and  filled  every 
„..,>n;.wr  i.itli   tlu.  wMiloi-.;   nishinif  foT'  irold.     IiL  tive  davs 


HIRIXG  AND   HOI.DIXG 


35 

3500  men  wore  thus   "kidnappod."     Not   infrocjuentlv  em- 

J^o/^  ^'"^  '"anufarturin.  town,  one  firn.  has  a  social 
Znt^'JZ'T''  ^'''  '"T'^^'  '—  to  list  all  chil- 
ls ;t/  ^^'^-^'^'^-^^  -if^^.  ^'■'  "1  grades,  and  desirubihty 
as  futu  e  employes.  Through  ,his  list,  kept  t,p  to  date 
he  .  uldren  are  ioilou-ed  until  they  leave  sch,^  and  Ire  hen 
offen  i  e„.ployHH.ut   u>  the  plant.     Some  employers  reswt 

horliood>.     But   most  scoutmjr  is  efTective  only  as  an  ex 
reme   en.ergc.ncy   method,   sin.-e   it    p,.<.hihits    th"  ZZ 
select.on  ,>ecessary  to  l.uild  up  a  stable  force 

Schools. -(4)  Employers  are   beginning  "to  reach   back 
to  the  utunate  sources  of  supply  an,l  to  explore  tie  genctal 
^t.        7     "'^' "^'  ^""'"^^^^  ^"^  ^^P-'tices  in  S  S 
^i  ?  :l.mv  "T''"  "■'"'•     ''*"  ^^""'-"  Manufaet.i: 

nu^.t  r  .'    ^'"■'^    ^"'"'^'"^>'    K'"Plovment    Depart- 

'        Ivoops  ,n  tou<.h  with  principals  of  all  schools  in  PMa- 

P^ua,  Hjfon.ung  them  of  their  requirements.     Otherlle 

hims  send  representatives  each  ve-.r  fr.  „,  ii  '"'^y^^^SQ 

I'lrms  desiring  young,  trainable  workers  should  «fr;,..  . 

-TO  „r:.,i„..„i,„  „„,.„„,  „,  .,„,„^  ,i':^,;"r  ,„ '  D " 


30 


TIIK    HCMAX   FACTOR   IX    INDUSTRY 


training,  scliool  aiithoiitics  and  stati'  legislatures  have 
evolved  a  nuiiil).'i-  (if  part-time  systems  l)y  which  children 
who  tiavc  ii-iched  a  y;iveii  a<ie  may  ilivide  their  time  between 
scliool  and  woik.  Failure  to  appreciate  the  value  of  train- 
iiiu:  a  i)otcntial  employe  hefon^  he  leaves  school,  coupled 
with  the  dilRculiy  of  arian<;inji-  for  part-time  work,  has  pre- 
vented employers  from  availiuji  themselves  as  fully  as  may 
be  of  this  source  of  su{)ply.  This  is  evident  from  the  ex- 
perience of  the  Curtis  Publishing  Company.  The  Penn- 
svlvania  Child  Lalior  Law  retjuires  minors  under  sixteen  to 
attend  school  eight  hours  a  week.  In  consequence,  a  Curtis 
employment  manager  writes  :  "  Should  a  request  be  received 
for  two  sixteen-year-old  boys,  eight  of  the  most  desirable 
applicants  would  not  be  too  many  to  send  for,  as  th(>  chances 
are  that  .50  per  cent  will  l)e  satisfactorily  employed.  If 
the  re(|ue<t.  on  the  other  hand,  came  for  two  boys  under 
sixte{>n,  on  account  of  the  present  lack  of  demand  due  to  the 
law,  thr(>e  l)oys  would  l)e  enough  to  smnmon."  -' 

Employment  Agencies.  —  (,"))  Employment  agencies  are 
of  tlu'ee  kinds  : 

(a)   Private  agencies  conducted  for  profit ; 

{b)  Special  agencies,  conducted  usually  at  cost  ; 

(c)  Public  agencies,  supported  and  managed  by  the  gov- 
ernn;ent. 

Private. — The  most  costly  to  employer  and  employe 
alik(>  is  the  first  group  —  tlie  private  employment  agency. 
In  Xew  York  City,  nearly  one  thousand  pi'ivate  employment 
agencies  collect  .?2. ()()(). I HK)  in  fees  yearly,  and  yet  over  85 
per  cent  of  the  t'tnployers  never  use  them.'^  The  expense 
to  ttie  applicant  for  work  at  the  private  ageney  of  being  sent 
on  false  trails  and  of  the  fretjuent  misrepresentati(jn  of  con- 
ditions, as  well  as  of  the  extortionate  fees,  is  well  known. 
The  privat(>  agency's  lack  of  discrimination  and  interest 
in  recommeniling  employes  makes  it  also  costly  to  em- 
ployers.    A  recent  study  of  labor  conditions  in  a  large  plant 


HIRIXG  AND   IIOLDrxo  37 

.^iKuyPd  th.t  it  iKui  boon  .....iously  exploited  l>y  the  private 
-npioy.ne,.t  agencies  in  a  nu.ul.er  of  Eastern  c^ies      Woi^ 
mon  had  been  s.upped  to  the  company's  plant  regard le     of 
fitness  for  the  work;   tlu>  con.pany  was  ehar.ed  fo        i    oad 
fare    hoard   for  retaining  the   worker,  and  f.-es,  wl  i  e     1  ' 
workoroftend.Inotarrlveat    all,   andifh^;^^^^^^^^^^^^ 
could  not  be  u,,,!.     The  eonsequ..nt  loss  to  the  co  nnanv 
was  estnnated  at  SlOOO  a  n.onth.^^   The  private  Iplorent 

Special  -  Tl„.„.  aif   ,nany   groups  „f  sprd:,l   „,-,.„,.],., 

:;;:'"-!;:  ■'>•  ••" ■■--.  ""v^-y--.  ami  i,y'„,„o;,'  " 

"'"■  "■"'■':;"<■"•     Tins  distrust  is  so tiu.o.s  ,„orito,l    as  l„  Z 

■  us     Assooiation,   rcrntly    iuvosligatcj    hy    ,|„.    r„it..,l 
Wale   Dcpartawut  of  Lal,or,  which  aims  primarily  a(  ',1 
■roakmg  a,„l  l,la,.klis,i„g.»     Su.-h  agonLs  are  „    a   "t  ." 

1 :., :;  :■';;:'  ,"'"'■'■"■;'  •;■"""•"-  ■•"•  <™p'"^--  -'^i- 

to  lilt  trade  agency  are  the  efforts  of  Chamhers  of  fo,n 
;.;.;.;<•  ^.  orga„i«.  en.ployn.ent  agencies    „„„„,,       ^Z 

r-     ^'""l:  "'^■>-  l'™«»f  val"<'. vided  thev  do  not  earn 

■  -,„„  dtstrust  as  other  ea.ployers'  agenries.     O ,   ?i " 

;^."ia.eostisthep,ji:mL:i:':,g;:^,r:d^ 

o!  nnskL';:,",:,:::" '--"■■ -^■■^-a^-.f..  very  spL-, 

Public.  _  Th,.    third    group    is    the    puMie    etnplovment 
'^'■liange,  managed  for  the  unilual  l,e,„.fi,  ...  ',  1°", 


38 


THE    IIUMAX    FACTOR    IN    INDUSTRY 


cinployor  'Mid  Siip'iortod  hy  taxation.  Its  dcvclopmont 
in  this  ('(Hihuy  !ias  hiM'ii  cxcecdiiijily  slow.  iMiuhiiid  and 
riei'iiiany  carh  liavc  about  five  time-  as  many  piihlic  cni- 
plovnicnt  aficncics  in  oprr..ti(in  as  the  riiitcd  States.  The 
tiist  pulilic  cniploymcnt  Inircau  in  the  rnit(,i  States  was 
()pene<l  in  the  State  of  Ohio  in  |S<)0.  Tliere  ar(>  now  seventy 
or  eiirhty  such  bureaus  ll\roUiihout  tlii,-  country,  Imt  until 
recently  tlie^e  have  acted  as  cle.iiinii  houses  for  unskilled 
nianual  labor  only.  They  are  inadequate  in  nuniiier,  with- 
out proper  supei'vision,  oru;ani/ation,  and  information. 
The  mana^ers  are  underpaid,  and  are  often  political  placo 
holders.  I'niform  records  are  not  used,  and  llii'  iancaus 
do  not  coiiperate.  Only  twenty  of  all  these  bureaus  report 
"  fit  \oss  "  as  a  basis  of  placement.-"  Within  the  last  few 
y(>ars  there  has  be(>n  rapiil  pnnrress,  how(>ver,  notably  "i 
Ohio,  Wisconsin,  llliiioi'^,  ;ind  Mass.achusetts.  The  Cleve- 
land bur(\'ni  has  centr.alized  all  the  ;iL!;encies  in  thi'  city, 
private,  phil.ai.thropic.  and  public  ;ind  is  iieiziiniinu:  to  plico 
the  collcL^e  ^ra'"uate  and  the  >i)eci.illy  tiaineil  ni'ii  and 
woman.  ,as  well  .as  th(>  manual  laiuucr.''"  It  m;iiiitains  ;i 
iieutral  attitude  in  .all  Labor  di-t urbances.  investij^alc ;  both 
employer  and  employe,  and  aim-  at  vocational  fiuidanco 
and  litn(>ss  in  placing. 

Federal.  Throutih  Liainin^  the  ('on(id(>nce  of  employe 
and  employer  such  bureaus  will  eventu.illy  do  much  to 
solve  the  problems  both  of  uiu  inploynieiit  and  of  labor 
shortji^e.  The  ni'eatest  hop(>  of  the  future  lies  jiei-haps  in 
the  n(>w  br.anch  of  the  DeiJartmcnt  of  L.ibor,  the  1  mted 
States  i-'ederal  lOnployment  Service,  vvhich  aims  ultimately 
to  plac(>  each  worker  in  tlH>  country  in  ih.at  jo!)  in  which  he 
will  add  most  to  the  total  volume  of  production  with  the  least 
co-t  {ti  himself,  to  the  in>lustiy  and  to  society.  It  >eeks 
to  britu:  the  entire  Labor  >upplv  in  contact  with  all  de- 
ni.and  for  labor  .-^-ujjplv.  It  will  help  b>  dimin.ate  the 
"  peildhiiL!:  '■  of  labor,  which  ilraiiis  the  vitality  of  the  labor 


Iinnxci    AM)    HOLDING 


39 


I 


I 


|vs.n.    fh...os,Iy  ".ant  ads'-  an,l  th.t  parasiti..  m^^^^^^^ 
'ii;!!i,  tli(>  private  .'niplnvmcnt  a^^,.n(■y 

Summary    of    Outside    Sources;-^  In    ron.ul.nn^    the 
^oun.os  ol  I.h..  supply  ou.si,l,Mlu.  plant.  ,lHM.nH>loL  J 
-ana,,.r  o,  a  ,„-n.  wm  prol.ahly  Won,l..  to  ur,.  ,1.0  p,v..,, 
r,np]ny..s  to  hnn.  ,!,,,>  fnVn.Is  to  th.  .n.plovnn.nt   ofTic-o 
.Ha,K.ntaln-    ,],.  .xt,.,,,   ,o  wlurh  su-l,  a  .■lu.n.  is  adopt.. 

t-    plan,    arc    sat:sfa..,o,.y.     A.lv.rtisin,    and      .outing 
'''"  '"  /  <'''^-^^'UT  from  ,nnr  to  tin,.,  I.ut  tl,.  no.,!  f,,,-  su.'h  an 

.A-p-.H hturo  as  ,lH,v  .n.ail  .an  iKMrdu....!  to  a  mininunn  by  a 
-'V  ul    ,.h„,   syst.rn,    l,<,in,   appli.an.s    who    hav.   sou^h 

;:'"''"V"""^  l'^  """  ^--  -•  ■"-'!-■,  o,.  hav.  !,..„  ,.„,,, 
-'...  "™^  -!-'-n.  :-^l  -ou,in.  .xp..Ii,ions,  o 
"   -      n,,un-,.s  n.a.l.  a,    ,h.  ..hook     I„   „,.,  „,,„,'.  ,f 

♦'"    P;''"<-  •■mploynu.n,   hur.aus  ,1).  .n,plovn,.nt   n,ana^.r 

;;:';;;';'•'••*'•''•  than  to  p,,,.s.,i,.p,.,,,.,-,,, ,,,,,,.,. ,^^^^ 

in.  n.ai.s      iiu'.aus  ruitil    (  .n-l  ,     i     <i  .      • 

.,         '    """  "  "'^''^  <"  <lH'<'P!>'>rtuin,v  oflVr.,! 
and  s.cur.s  ,h.  materia!  d.M'iv,! 

Inside    Sources,-  Ml)  T.h.    ,„„r.    .on<,ru.,iv.    uork    of 

,'''''';':;-^"''''' :'''•••'■■•'''••''<  ^vinjm 

-   '""';'''>^'"t,^  -f   -h.   lahor  supply    ui.Inn    th.  ph„,        v, 
';"";    "'"    ^"■.    ,.,npo,.anlv    ..nploy.d.    ail    "  faih.r.."    ail 

:';r':^'"^-  "!'^'" '•  -"'  ^'"  ---  i-h..,  p.,..,,,.  „; ,;:; 

''•""'"'""""""'  P"'^"i'">  ".■n.pi..l.  form  a  po,.n„al  , , „.„- 
;r  •''"7'>-  '•■••'•■  -U'l<>ym.n,  d.partnu.n,  aMs  in  th^ 
!'""■'-  -r  ad,|us,n,.n,  l,y  transf.rrin^r  ,!,.  ,.,„porarilv 
---'    -d.h.f.^ 

-  Mi.l.  of  „H.r.  diflnad,  .ork,  M  u,d,...  :,his  p.,,,,,i,n,,,,, 
M.-a<ou,,..o,  .uppiv.      I^,-,l„-.o,nv...,„„„„,,..|-ulIv 

':;::i'""^ ;"v— .-"'-■^"-H.nthav. ,. 

;"     !"■'""•'"•■•    '-"-■  ^''-''"y.    and    phvH,,U.       I.H   .s     .  .. 

;-nnu,stalsoh.in,      , ,.,,,,,,, ^.,,,,,.,,^^^_     '• 

''""-.n,d   .apar.ty  of  ,h.  in.hvidual  d.v.lop.d.      I'nvsonf 


40 


TITIO   HUMAN   FACTOR   I\   IXDrSTRY 


oinployrs  sIhiIiM  also  he  ciicouragcil  to  express  their  de- 
sires anu  ainl)itions. 

Tuv  Jon  Specification 

Plant  Chart.  —  The  s(  lection  of  workers  arrordin|i  to 
tlieir  fitness  lor  work  is  js  dependent  on  an  intimate  knowl- 
eds(^  of  the  jiositions  to  he  tilled  as  on  an  ade(iuate  supply  of 
applicants,  or  perfected  met  hods  of  determininu:  their  fit- 
ness. It  is  not  merely  p:en(>ral  ahilily  which  th(>  employ- 
ment department  mtist  look  for,  hut  suitaiiility  for  the 
specific  position.  I'reparatoiv  to  discoveiinji  this,  the  in- 
dividual qualities  and  e(|uipmcnt  called  for  in  the  position 
must  he  defined.  .\  joh  s])ecification  or  analysis  should  lie 
prejiared  for  ev  ly  ])osit ion. -o  that  it  need  not  he  necessary 
to  analyze  specitic  re(uiirements  duriufj;  the  emerp;oncy 
created  hy  an  ope!i  m;ichine  or  desk.  .\  valuahle  pre- 
liminary is  a  complete  organization  chart  giving  every  jiosi- 
tion  in  the  plant  in  its  relation  to  every  other  position. 
Then  the  po-iliou  within  the  jurisdiction  of  the  em])loyment 
manager  shnuid  he  cl.i-ilied,  an  appropri;it(>  title  found,  the 
duties  involved  hrieily  defined,  and  th(>  .schedid(>  of  pay  given. 
The  Conunonwealth  I'.disoii  ("om|)any  has  a  classified  list 
of  ahoul  four  hundred  different  positions;  for  example: 

A(f'lrc-;s()i:r,'i|)}i  ()pcr;iti>r 

To  iiirlufic  III!  |)o-^ilii)tis.  tlic  duties  of  wliicli  iin'olxc  tlio  oiMTntion 
of  it')  iHl(lr('ssi)(,'rii]ili,  ;iihI  tlic  iHTfornKiiicc  of  i  lirii'.'il  wurk  iii\  dIvi'iI. 
Hale  .\     -  (pay  I  ((»  mos.)  K.ilr  I)        (p;iy)  (1  year) 

I{!itc  n  "       fO  inos.)  Kntc  !']  "       <\  \t'i\r) 

KatcC  "       (I  year)  U.itc  1'  "       MiiNiinam 

Aiivcrtisinir  (^  irrr^ipotulciil,  Floctrii'  Sjiup 

Ti)  imliidc  I  he  po-iti.it)  the  iliiliisiii'  w  Imli  involve  t  lie  pri>pM  rat  ion, 

UIhIi  r  the  ilireeduli  uf  the  .M;ili;it;er,  tMeetric  .Shop.  .111(1  (ieiieral 
Pti.ilieily  .\tre:il,  of  catalomies,  follow-ii])  letters,  iitul  other  acher- 
li.'^iti','  iiKilter  for  Ihi'  purpose  of  iiicrcasinc  the  sale-;  iiad  in;ul  order 
business  of  ih"  I'hi  tri''  Shop. 

Miiiiriiinii        (pay)  Maximuin  —  (puy) 


HIRrXG  AXD  HOLDIXQ  41 

Analyzing  the  Job.  -  With  this  s„i.Io  to  what  i.  required 
|>  .■H.'h  position,  th..  ..nploynu.nt  .nanasor  p.o.reds  to 
l.vnn  umlor  what  ..on.htions  it  i.s  do„..  an-!  what  is  ..s.-ntial 
"-  physK,,,,;.  incntahty,  t..n,pora,.H.„t,  ..lur.tio,,,  ,.„hI  train- 
'".^  for  .lo.n,  ,t  wHl.  Th.  .hawin.  .,p  of  th..s..  job  spe,.i- 
H'atioMsshoui.I  he  suporvisod  by  tlH>  en.plov.i.ent 'nianafrer 
-ut  not  done  by  hi,,,  alone.     Oft.,.  sp.,.ifi,,,,i..Hs  an-  written 

Meje,^    Bloon.h.M,    ,„    anaiyzh.^   the   jobs    of    B-unbor^rr 
'"Kl   (  o.npany-s  drpar(„„.nt   sto.v  in   Xewa.k.   ,ave  every 

•■mp^>ye  a  hsf  of  ,,uos,ions  to  answer  abont  his  duties  and 
problen.s,'  The  pu,p<,se  of  ,h,.  study,  to  ins,,,,  fai,-  dial- 
■n^  and  jnst  eo.np.nsatio,,.  was  explained  in  advance,  and 
"nd.eds  of  answe,'s  w.a-e  nveivrd.  The  exe.a.tives  were 
""•■;  ^'■^'^•'•'  ^".  •'"-"-  -e,,-  job  in  th..ir  n-sp.H.tive  Z 
P;"'"-<s.     F.,.ally     an     ontsido     inv.sti.ator  '  n.ade     hi 

.   K  Iys.s       r.-,m,  tl,,.s.  th,v.  d.sn-iptio,.s,  f,.o,,,  ,hr,H.  po^ 
|>f  _|'-v,  Mr.  Rloo.nfidd  wrote  the  eon.posit,.  job  spCnfica- 

Specification  Blank.       Tn  a  small  or^ani^alio„  it  is  fre- 
Mu-nt ly  poss.bl.  for  th-  pn-son  ..ha.p.d  with  ....ploying  to 

know    h..d.,a,!  of  .ad.  typ,.  of  position.     Bnt  e!.,.  here  a 
e.ref,,lanaiys.sof,h..   v,,^ 

ul.  In  a  a,,v  .ndnst.y  such  l.nowl-d,..  is  ...anifestly 
""P'-.bh.  and  the  job  sp,vifi,,.tion  b,...,,,,,,.  not  only  a 
;■:"'";•;'<'';'•".'-♦  ^'   "......si,y.     TI,.  aeron.panvir.K  sp,H.iia. 

-  i-i-.k  .s  ,.s..d  bv  .1,.  r:.a,.^ 

I''  Y,       ":'^''''"'k   .s   hlle.|   in   ulnavvrra  varan..vo..enrs 
:""'  "'"•  ;vnt.n>.  of  it  tak.s  .lid.tly  ovrr  fivo  n.i,.„t,.s-     This 

.sa,.o,,.b,,,,.d,v.,,,is,,io,,l,ia,,ka,.djobsp..,.i(i..ati<.nfor,,n- 
s    lied   wo,k<.,s.     .s,„nlar  on.s  .an   .va.hly   bo  p,,,pa,-.d  f..^ 
;rpos.,ons.      U       „,  i,    ,,,„    ,.,    r,„„„,    :,4^.,,.    J 
-  '    "«'•  fonanan  hll   .,.  .,nl>    ,   ..,.,,,,,.  ,„,„,,„„,„   ,,,.„,^ 

,r"'"'  ";.•■'"'-• 'ill..d.and,ohav..,l .nploy: 

'"•  ■"  '"-"a.er  ...ba,  ,„  .Hn  ,.ng  U.e  appiieaul,  to  the  ,spod- 


42 


THE   HUMAN    FACTOR    IX   INDUSTRY 


GENERAL    RAILWAY    S|(:\AL    COMPANY 

StaNDAUU    Jon    SCKCIKIC  ATIONS 


( '(i|)y  for 

Dopartmcnt    Class Joh  Xatiic. 

Deseriptiou  of  Job 


NaTCHE    of    WoKK    AM)    \VoliKIN(i    CoM)ITro\S 

■•'■"IT giiick Dirty  .  . 

Heavy.  Slaiidiiig.  ..    Bench Slow.  Creasv.. 

Medium.      .Sittiiip; HcmcIi  Ma,-li.        .  Roii^'li         Wet 

Lit,'llt  .             \Vali;iim.         Flo.ir  Macli.            Close            Clean      . 
Continuously  repeated  o|)er;ition        or  X'ariety  oi  jobs 
Make  of  Maeliini"  .... 
Length  of  time  reipiired  to  learn  jol, 

Ratk— D.W.  or  P.W..   Startim;  Rate.     Avp-    Larninf^rs  on  P.W. 
How  soon  put  on  pie<'t>W(irli     

RKyt'IKKMKNTS         Sejiool  i  I IL,'  desired  ..  . 

Necessary  to  read  and  urite  KriKiisii  .      Read  Blueprints 

Tools  rerpiin'd 

I'relerred  A'^e  lleiirlit  \Vei(j:ht  Nationality 

Previous  Training  or  Kxperienri'  desired 


RiCMAKKH. 


Dei)t.  Foreman Empl.  Dopt. 

i^upt Dato 


Form  SiK) 


fic.'itioiis  lli;it  liiivp  Ix'cn  pro\  iniisjy  pn^piircd.  Tlic  I'tiitod 
Stiitcs  Shippitiii  Ho.iid  iMiicrticney  i'"iect  ( 'orpunf  ion  li;is 
listed  Mtid  :mMiv/(M|  oiic  Imiidn-d  :ind  thirty-seven  ditTiM'etit 
HliipyMid  oenipalions.  An  example  ,,(  these  is  the  follow- 
ing one  of  the  haintnei-sniilh's  oceiipatioii :  '-"•' 


HIRIXG  AND  HOLDING 


43 


Othor  namps  by  whioh  occupation  is  known : 

Heavy  Forpcr. 
Occupations  tiiost  nearly  allied: 

Mlacksiiiilii,  Droj)  Forger. 
Trade  reqiiirenieiits  : 

The  IlaniM.ersmilh  supervises  the  operation  of  all  kinds  of  work 

'I'"!,,  w.th  [H.w.r  ,|r„p  hanuners  and  forge  presses;    heats  and 

'auuners  n.to  shape  from  .JraNvings.  templates  or  samples    all 

heavy  shap.s  ,,r  forginirs,  su.'h   as   crankshafts,  axh's    frames 

'•"'uieetmg  ,ods  and  ,„,.  ,„„  „f  ,^„.,,„  f,,,.^^;,,^,^       j,^_  ^^,^^^^_^  ^^^• 

;«'avy  mgo.s,  l,ut  occasionally  ,nay  he  required  to  work  on 
M.ter  ingots;  h,.  should  he  ahl,.  to  ,lo  hen.ling,  .Irawing  up- 
setting, wehhng.  and  formin,^  using  coal,  cok..,  gas,  or  oil  fires. 
and  he  lamihar  with  the  various  steels.  H.  shoul.i  be  ai,le  to 
d.re,.t  work  of  heatcTs.  I>ackhauders,  strikers,  and  helpers. 
Kducation  : 

f'onimon  sciiool. 
riiysical  rerpiirements  : 

Should  have  goo,|  eyesight,  strength  .and  endurance;    ability  to 
stand  heat. 

Mental  requirements  : 

Higher  than  average  intelligercp. 
Kxperienec  : 

The     llauunersmith     should     he     an     expert     blacksmith     and 

horou^^hly  e.xp,.rieneed  in  ,^, „,  ral  pouer  hnnn.er  work      must 

hr  fanuliar  with   the  operation  .„•  all  Hasse,  of  furnaces    an.! 

should  have  ha.l  similar  exp-riem-e  ,n  a  repair  shop  or  indus- 

trial  plant. 

Kiilranee  re(piirements  for  traininu'  school  : 

Mti^t  be  a  pnn.tieal  hlaekMuith;    eommon  .snhool  or  trade  school 
•^''"■■^'""-':     !"■   rannliar  uiil,   cehanieal   drau  ,„^.s  an.!    hlue- 
Pnnt.;    s(r,.nulh  and  en.iuran,.,  ,    ah.|„y  to  stan.l  intense  heat 
Hate  established  ■ 

iVfitiitioi,    iiecl    not    l,e    enr.rn.e.l    (.,    iUr    jnwrr   ^n-le.   of 
wntk  l,ut   ,u:,v  1...  n..|.||v  appl.,  d  „.  n.spnn.siid.-  positions 
All  liiipoitiuil  and  ttrimieu!  ixj^^itio!!  -n  t\'.-.-  VV==!f..  =  :-  i\:..:  :   ._ 


44 


THE  HUMAN  FACTOR  IX  TXDUSTRY 


of  tho  Motinpolit:in  Life  Insurance  Company,  for  instance, 
is  briefly  (lescrilnnl  as  follows : 

SUPE  R  V I  SO  R  -  X  r  I  { s  I XG    S  F  R  VIC  E 

Qualification     Ucf^'istcnd  Xursc     Exccutivo  Expfrii-nr-e  with 
Visitir]}^  Xurso  A-socjatiDii  or  (ttlicr  lart^c  frroiip  of  Xurscs 
Marked  E.\-pcuti\(' Aliility  Clond  ('(irrcspondout 

ExrKTicnpo    in    public    .speaking,    writiuj:,'   aud    statistical    work 
desired. 

Descriptive  Paragraph.  —  Mr.  Riirke,  of  tho  Detroit 
Steel  Products  ("omijany,  prefers  tli(>  descriptive  paragraph 
for  both  skilled  and  iniskilied  worker  and  adds  to  a  descrip- 
tion of  duties  and  specific  rcfiuircMuents,  a  "  personality  " 
para^.rapli.'"'  .\  storekeeper  foreman,  for  instance,  "  must 
he  able  to  direct  and  uct  the  work  out  of  ;i  fianfi  of  common, 
ordinary  latxirers.  To  some  extent  he  nmst  have  the  gruff 
personality  to  coimn;md  the  resp(.ct,  get  the  enthusiasm 
and  confidence  of  rtien  of  this  class  and  type.  He  should 
be  i);iticnt  and  e\-en-tempere<l  enough  to  be  constantly 
'l)othei'ed'  for  material  and  readjustments,"  etc.  For  a 
press  hand  "an  ovei'-icsponsive,  over-keyed,  neivous  or- 
ganization would  lie  d.ingerous  on  account  of  accidents, 
and  would  , also  make  the  woik  (H^agreeablc.  ,  .  .  It  is  very 
css(>ntial  th.it  the  intelhgence  be  not  over-active  or  imr- 
pinativ(>."  etc.  These  chara<'terizat  ions  add  considca-.ably 
to  the  value  of  the  sja'cification,  but  undoubtedly  all  other 
reciuirements  as  to  piiysi(|ue.  tr.aiiiing.  and  education  should 
be  given  where  pos>ible  in  a  form  similar  to  that  of  tlie  (!en- 
cral  Railway  Sign.d  C'omiiany,  and  not  scattered  through 
several  jiaiagraphs. 

There  is  a  dilTercnce  of  opinion  ,is  to  the  extent  to  which 
the  iirejudii'cs  of  the  foicman  should  api)ear  on  the  speciiica- 
tioii  and  th.e  ell'ort  made  to  choose  applicants  accordinul\-. 
Mr.  Burke  suugests  that  I  he  speeihcal  ion.  which  is  submitted 
to  the  foreman  for  ajiprovai,  should  expressly  -late  that  poli- 


HIRING   AXD   IIOLDIXG  45 

t.Vs,  roliffion    nationality,  otc,   nml  not  ho  considered  in 
choosnifr  apphcants.so 

Advantages   of   Job    Specification.  -  An    additional    ad- 
vantage acrru„)K  from  the  preparation  of  ...uvfnl  spe.afioa- 
tions  rs  that  a  just  standardization  of  wages  and  salaries 
s,na<leposs.l.e.      The   use   of   the   plan,    ehart    and   joh 
analyses  also  oils  the  wheels  of  the  lunnan   niaehinerv  by 
clearly  dehiung  the  int(>rrelalion  of  all  its  parts      It  opens 
avenues  for  pron.otions  and  transfer,  and.  ahove  all,  enables 
the  employment  managcM'  t<.  know  what  to  look  for  in  the 
"ow  en.p  oye.     That  these  advantages  are  r.-al  is  proved  by 
ho  rapuhty  w.th  wlneh  suc^h  job  speeifieations  arc  being 
adopted.     The    Republiean    Metal    Ware    Companv,     the 
C,erman-.\mencan  Button  Con.pany,  th,-  Ceneral  Railway 
Signal    Company,    an.l    the    Curtis    Publishing    Company 
are  a  few  of  the  firms  now  usin.  them.     Mr.  \vi„slow  in  the 
R.Hnnond  .Surrey  (191!)  madc>  out  surh  speeifieations  for 
various  tra.les,  meluding  the  printing  and  tob.aeeo  trades 
They  an>  being  made  out  by  nearly  everv  member  of  the 
hmployment  Managers'  AssoeJati(.n  of  Detroit  ' 

Future  of  the  Job  Specification.  -  .\  ..uestionnaire  sent 
out    by    ,h,.    l\.,msylvania    Dej.art >n<.„t    of    Labor   and    In- 
•lustry,   ...  January,    19IS,   ,n,uks   th.  beginning  of  a  new 
opoeh  m  the  short  history  of  the  spcviliration.     So  far  the 
o.nphasis   has   Ikh-u   on   what    tJu-   einplov.-   shouM   be      In 
P.'''l'a.-...g    f<.r    the    .et.u'n    of   disabled    s.^ldi.M's    this    c.ues- 
t.onnauv   se.-ks   to   find   ou,    from    Pennsylvania  ...nployers 
what   that  employ,.  n<vd  not  b,..      It  asks  wh.a,   .liseased  or 
n-.ppl,.,!  nuM,  ...iv  now  ..mploy.'d  ;md  in  what  .■aparjty   also 
'-'w  many  nien  ..oul.l   be  .Muploy.-d  in  ..a.'h   plant  who  IukI 
I<-t  one  ha.id,  both  hands,  one  leg,  ooth  legs,  one  eve,  both 
eyes,  etc. 

This  (luestionnaire  .'ontains  a  valuabl,.  hii„  for  ,.mplovo.-s 
Dr.   la.iunn,  of  Avrry  Company,  says,  ".Some  of  us  have 

statistics     (j(j\<jilmi-     t,,i-,.i..,l     , _i  .1 

^    ''"■'•■'    J--:-     .::ov,iiig     tii.iT     miUlT     lillS 


46 


THE   HUMAN  FACTOR   LV  INDUSTRY 


system  (lliat  of  placiiip;  those  with  physical  defects),  the 
worse  the  physical  defect,  the  less  the  accident  incid(>nce. 
.  .  .  Moreover,  tliese  saine  statistics  show  that  labor 
turnover  varies  invcTsely  with  the  physical  defects  of  the 
laborer."  ^' 

A  further  int(>restinfi  change  wliich  may  appear  in  job 
specifications  in  tlic  near  future  is  th(>  extension  of  the  de- 
sirabl(>  a^e  limit  of  the  new  employe.  In  1017  tlie  Em- 
ployers' Association  of  Chicago  placed  about  9.")()n  men  ovct 
45  years  of  a^c  with  such  success  that  at  the  end  of  that  year 
91()  employers  in  and  near  the  cily  were  rejiularly  hiriuff 
these  older  iiien.''^  They  have  been  [)laced  by  this  as- 
sociation in  every  conceivable  kind  of  skilled  and  unskilled, 
clerical  and  semi-executive  work,  and  the  testimony  of  tlieir 
achiev(Mnent  is  overwhelmintily  in  tlieir  favor.  No  longer 
will  they  be  relegated  to  the  night  watchman's  post.  One 
firm  rates  their  efTiciency  as  10  p(>r  cent  greater  than  that 
of  younger  men  in  the  same  work.  Hart,  SchatTner  and 
Marx  Company  began  (experimenting  thus  with  older  men 
in  the  fall  of  \'Mi\  and  affirm  the  following  advantages  to 
accrue  from  their  employment  : 

(1)  They  hav(>  a  steadying  influence  on  \ho  factory  moiale 
[because  many  of  t!i(>m  hwo  had  the  employers'  point  of 
view] ; 

(2)  They  d(H'rease  th(>  labor  turnover  [!)ecause  the  older 
man  "  tends  "  to  stick] ; 

(;?)  They  give  greatcM-  application  to  and  have  greater  in- 
terest in  thcii'  work  [because,  having  fewer  distractions  than 
younger  men,  although  their  potctitial  energy  is  less  it  is  all 
used  in  their  woik.j" 

Making  mo^t  of  the  labor  supply  at  hand  by  having  the 
job  si)ecifieations  inrjudc  what  I  lie  worker  rieeil  not  be, 
may  prove  (  lieapi-r  in  flu'  loiiu;  run  than  the  elabor.ate  ad- 
verti-^ing  and  scouting  schemes  to  which  .some  employers 
ha\c  resorted  (o  secure  their  einnloves. 


CHAPTER   III 

HIRIXG   AND  IIOLDIXG.  Continued 

Selecting  the  Workeu 

The  actual  process  of  seloctinir  a  man  for  a  position  implies 
a  douhl,  p,ohi,,„;    fi,,^_  ,h.(er>„inin^r  as  ac^curateiy  as  pos- 
sil)le  the  man  who  will  fit  the  position,  and  second,  making 
the  position  sufTiciently  attra-'tive  to  the  man  to  make  him 
u-ish  to  secure  it  a„,l  fo  hoM  it   aft.-r  it   h.as  h,en  s.-eured 
In  one  respect,  tlu-  em,)loyn.ent   mana^icr  acts  as  a  buyer 
ot   service  and   the   prospective  applicant    is  the  seller -'in 
another  the  positions  are  reverse.l  and  tlie  applicant  is' the 
buyer  of  a  given  p<,sirion  and  th<-  <>mpl(,yment  manager  the 
seller.     'While  the  teclmi,,ue  of  the  <.mpl„ver  as  buver  has 
been  carefully  d<-veloped,  his  position  as  sc>ller  is  gen..rallv 
Ignored,  to  the  .letriment  of  industry.     .\  workman  is  valu- 
able  in   proportion    to  the  degree  of  spontaiX'itv  of  effort 
which   he   puts   into   his   work.     This   spontaneitv   mav   he 
fostered  by  just   treatment    .as  ivgards  wag.>s  and  working 
'•ondit.ons,  or  it  n.ay  be  killed   by  (he  in,|iir,Tenc,>  of  the 
»'n>ployer  who  ivgards  his  employe  as  a   mere  c,,,.   i„   the 
"lachme,  to  be  treate.l  with  only  such  consi.j.-ration  as  is 
absolutely  necessary  in  (.rder  to  .,!    ,,in  his  services. 

There  are  four  considt-rations  which  <letermine  the  <ie- 
s.rabihty  of  the  job  to  the  applicuul  and  his  continued 
willingness  to  work  well : 

(Ij   Re;   uneration  ; 

(2)  Opportunity  for  promotion; 

(3)  Working  conditions; 

(4)  Social  advantages. 

47 


48 


THE   HUMAN   FACTOR    IN   IXDUSTRY 


Elements  Determining  Selection.  —  If  t!ic  apijlicaiit 
is  t(j  make  a  satisfactory  and  satisfied  oinplnyc  those  points 
nuist  he  carefully  considenMl,  •■  advantajies  and  'Usad- 
vantaKcs  frankly  and  lionestly  discussed,  and  the  importance 
to  the  firm  and  the  dijiiiity  of  the  specific  work  made  clear. 
Tlu>  hifrh-jrtade  eniployment  manager  apjireciates  the  im- 
portance of  his  position  as  seller,  and  gives  to  the  aptlicant 
an  impression  of  the  attituile  of  his  concern  wliicli  does  not 
soon  wear  off. 

On  the  other  hand,  careful  discrimination  is  necessary  in 
selecting  the  work(>r.  The  main  factors  to  be  considered 
are : 

(1)  Training:  education  and  experience; 

(2)  Native  menial  ability; 

(3)  Physical  condition; 

(4)  Personality. 

Changes  in  Methods  of  Selection.  —  Increasingly  is  the 
effort  being  made  by  progressive  employers  to  secure  a 
scientific  estimate  of  the  individual  worker's  capacities 
through  the  application  of  medicine  and  psychology.  The 
changes  which  employment  departments  have  made  in 
the  methods  of  selecting  employes  is  indicated  by  the  fol- 
lowing tabl(>  prepared  by  Mr.  Kelly,  comparing  the  means 
u.sed  to  determine  the  api)licant's  fitness  by  twelve  firms 
without  separate  employment  departments  and  eighteen 
firms  with  such  depaitments.' 

Whereas  at  one  time  the  "  trial  on  work  "  was  the  only 
test  of  an  applicant's  fitness,  this  table  marks  its  decreas- 
ing popularity  whei-ev(>r  separate  (Muployment  depart- 
ments have  been  organized.  Of  the  <Mghteen  (inns  with 
such  departmems  oidy  three  depend  largely  on  "trying 
out,"  while  nine  of  the  other  twelve  firms  still  cling  to  this 
old-fashioned  method  of  selection.  The  employment  de- 
partments substitute  for  this  trial  work  and  the  siM)il(>d 
work  and  wasted  lime  that  accompany  it,  the  application 


HIRING    AND    HOLDIXO 


49 


WiTHo  IT  Separate 
Emplovmk.vt  Dep.\rt- 

.MENTM 

(IJ  firms  —  8,22.") 
finployi's) 

!            With  Separate 

h^MI'LOYMENT  DeHART- 

.M  E  N'T.S 

(IS  firms  — 47, (J2.5 
employes) 

NunilKT 

I'eri'fntai'e  of 
1        I'"irnis 
Investigated 

Number 

Perec^iitaRO  of 

Firms 
Investigated 

Application  blanks     . 
i'crsoiial  iiit(r\iow  with 

other  than  foreman 
References    followed    up 

in  majority  of  cases 
Physical  tests  .... 
Trial  on  work  largely  do- 

pended  upon      ... 
Mental  tests      .... 

3 

7 

1 
0 

0 
0 

L'5.0 

58.3 

S.3       , 
0.0 

75.0 
0.0 

11 

17 

12 
3 

3 

7 

77.7 

94.5 

66.6 
16.6 

16.6 
3.S.8 

blank,  interview,^  with  oinph)vm,Mit  officij.ls,  physiral  and 
occasionally  mental  t.^sts,  an,!  the  careful  followin,£r-iip  of 
reference's. 

Preliminary  Interview.  -  The  first  step  in  the  selection 
of  employes  is  the  picliminary  intervitnv  in  which  the  om- 
plnyment  manager  discovers  whether  the  aiiplicant  satisfies 
certain     minimtim     reqiiiivments.     Some     insurance     com- 
panies, for  instance,  have  d(Mi(ied  that  salesmen  are  more 
successful   if  married  and   within   certain  a^e  limits.     Ap- 
plicants who  are  not  married  and  not  of  a  suitable  a^e  can 
be  immerliately  rejectcnl.     Wheti  the  firm  has  manv  more 
applicants  for  work    th;.n    it    can   us(.,    this   interview   will 
serve  to  di.scotirairo  a  l.irpe  numb.'r  and  will  encourage  only 
those  who  promise  In-st   to  fill  the  re(,uirements  of  the  par- 
ticular  job.     At    thi-^    int.Mvi.w,    l.,o.    the    wage   or   salary 
scales,  the  recmired  prelimin     v  trainitig,  the  hours,  and  the 
physical    and    mrnia!    examinations    re(|Uired     should     be 
briefly    explained    to    the    ap|)licant.      If    ,he    f.reliininary 
application   is  made  by  mail  and  an   interview  not    rearlily 
Outuuiahlr,   tin-  appiieuliou    blank  shouid   be  inclosed   in  a 


50 


Tiir:  [irMAX  factor  fv  ixditstry 


lotlor  nutliiiinu;  iIh'  poiiit-^  that  would  have  f)oori  explained 
in  I  lie  ititcivicw. 

The  Application  Blank.  —  What  tlio  application  blank 
should  ask  is  a  niootiMl  (luo^tion.  Thcro  is  fjcnuM-al  ajireo- 
mcut  ainoriK  rxpcrts  that  there  can  he  no  standard  appli- 
cation Itlaiik  tor  all  industries  or  all  departments  in  the 
same  iniiustrv.  Thcn^  will  he  a  radical  iliff(M'ence  in  the 
hlanks  used  for  a  mill-hand  or  a  stenographer,  a  teamster 
or  a  salesman.  .\t  the  present  time  the  application  blank 
icflects  the  al)sence  of  (he  jol)  specification  and  a  careful 
analysis  of  the  work  requirements.  There  is  remarkably 
little  dilTerentiation.  In  a  wide  variety  of  industries,  eleven 
out  of  twenty-live  concerns  recently  investigated  cover 
the  following  subjects  in  tlu-ir  application  blanks: 

(1)  Full  nami'  and  address; 

(2)  .\ge; 

(3)  Dateof  aiiplication ; 

(4)  ]\Tarried  oi-  single  ; 

("))  Names  and  addresses  of  former  employers; 
((>)  Tjcngth  of  time  in  each  position  : 

(7)  Natr.re  and  extent  of  education  ; 

(8)  Nationality; 

(0)  Position  ai)plied  for; 

(10)  Reasons  for  leaving  former  positions; 

(11)  Number  of  pcM'sons  dependent  on  applicant; 

(12)  Wages  in  each  of  former  positions; 

(13)  H(>ight  and  weight  ; 

(14)  References  otlier  th.an  tormcr  employers; 

(15)  Employed  by  this  company  before; 
(1())  Nimib(>r  of  childi'(Mi. 

None  o.'"  tile  (juestions  ;isked  relates  to  the  specific  require- 
ments of  the  jilaiit  jolis.  Standardized  application  blanks 
cantiot  supply  the  nei'il  of  different  indiistries.  (\arefu!  con- 
>id('ration  i.ui^t  br  given  (o  cadi  po'-ition,  if  the  ai>plicati()n 
forn>  is  !o  have  real  v  ihi(>. 


IIFRFXG    AVD    HOlDIXO 


II 


A  Common  Omission.  -  Th.  i„h.,.VHl  .lapsing  betwcvn 
^vmK  school  :,„,!  „.„.  to  u-urk  is  nntr.l  l,v  ,ho  Bournville 
^orks.nK„«ian,i.'-  A  .kI.  i.,- ,„s,. „.,,.,,,,,,,,,  ,,h,,, 
a^  s  xtern  yra.s  .1  a...  „>:.,•,■„.  an.l  Uo.s  not  rHurn  to  work 
for    overal  y,.ars,  ,nay  in  th.  ir.terval  hav,.  so  lost  the  habits 

oven  bo  t  ain.Hl  for  any  l,ut  th.  l.as,  .Ull..,!  work.  This 
su,j,ests  the  need  of  infor„,ati,m  rarelv  asked  fo-  on  the 
applK-atjon  bl.nk,  nanul>  :  th.  total  tin.e  duHn,.  wlneh 
tlje^apphcant  has  been   unen,„l.yed  d.in,   the  pLeding 

Useless    Quc^tions.  -  The   purpo.so   of   the    application 
blank    s  to  secure  facts  and    not   opinions.     Occasionally 
an  applicant  IS  asked   whethe,    he  is  honest   or  dishonest 
enerfre he  or    a.y,   ...urte,:       or  disco.n-teous.     The  ubUit^ 

vairi  '''  Z  "  'r  •"■'  ''''  ''""'^'^''  ^^"•'  ^•"•''  'l"«^fi<'"«  are 
"ot  he  1.S  a  (•hurch  nuanber  is  rar.-ly  i,nportant,  except  in  a 
P«s.tu,n  m  uddch  success  n.y  depend  in  oart  up,n  so  . 
oonnect.ons.  a.s  ,n  the  case  of  salesn.en.  Pnnided  the 
applicant  speaks  En,d--<h,  nationality  is  of  small  in^  ,or- 
ance.     In  seneral,  heaiti,  qu.stions  are  unav,ailin«  bedusc 

hejphcant  ..11  be  on  ,uard  a,ainst  discnn.ination  ona 
H-^ltl.  basis.      In   blanks  fille,!  out   wi,ho„,    a  prelinunary 
interview  a  que.stion  al)out  .physical  defeats  may  be  neces- 
sary, however. 

Value  of  the  AppUcation  Blank.  ^  One  ,reat  advantage 
of  the  application  blank  is  its  pennanen.y.  I,  ,,,„  be  filed 
for  fu  ure  use  so  that  the  facts  established  at  one  time  are 
available  at  a  later  .late.  This  applies  part. cnlarl,  to  t'-ose 
pe'-sons  for  whom  no  hnmediat.'  p..sitior  is  available  To 
make  it  as  effective  as  possible,  ,,„.(>b,l  consideration ',■.., st 
be  given  to  methods  of  filing.  These  at  present  vary  w.dely 
1  different  concerns.  .Joseph  and  Fei.ss  Company  file  b- 
otx,  Age,  and  Annarenf  .^-Jnlf.J.il.f,- ^     ti...  ,.     .•  * .,   ...  / 

----  V  111  Lio  i  liuiisxi- 


52 


TIIK    HUMAN'    FA(,'T()1{    IX    IXDLsTKV 


inp  C\)iiip;iny  luive  a  derailed  file  for  ovcrv  class  of  labor 
oinplnycd,  i'nnii  llic  compositor  and  tlic  prcssiiKin  to  the 
fly  lioy  and  the  truck  diivcr,  witli  one  class  for  iinihsiruhli's.^ 
WluM-c  only  skilled  labor  can  Kc  employed,  such  a  li'tailcd 
system  of  iiiin^i  is  piactical.  but  for  positions  which  do  not  re- 
(luirc  pi('vio\is  training  or  skill,  such  ;i  ela-silication  iiood- 
lessly  icstricts  the  labor  supply  availabl(>  for  each  jiosition. 
Willi  lo-eph  and  l"i  iss  ( 'oiu])any,  for  instanee,  pievious 
exix'iienre  i>  not  empha~i/.ed  because  00  per  cent  of  their 
enii)loyes  are  trained  in  from  two  to  ten  lohs  alter  being 
employed.'  Where  the  industry  has  many  pro<'es-es  pecul- 
iar to  itself,  as  in  the  case  of  the  ncnnison  Manufactur- 
iiifi  ( 'onipany.  which  en|ial;e-^  only  10  jk  ■  cent  skille(l 
workers,  th(>  ^rrcat  nei d  i<  for  untraine<l  but  trainable 
workers.  I'sually.  however,  each  blank  can  be  filed  with 
some  firoup  of  similar  jobs  in  accordance  with  the  appli- 
cant's {(i)  ])revious  expeiience  oi'  training,  or  (/')  appai'ent 
suitability  and  expressed  preh'icnce.  The  ajjplii'at  ion  should 
be  preserved  with  later  lecords  of  servii'c  to  be  icfei'rcd  to 
when  transferring,  discharjiinji,  or  pidmotin^  a"  employe 
or  re('mi)loyin^!;  a  former  employe. 

Time  Ne-aed  for  Selection.  But  the  ajjplication  bl.mk, 
together  with  the  wailing  piaiod  for  examination  that  it 
imi>lies,  has  in  il  the  -ticntilh  and  possibly  the  weak- 
ness—  that  more  time  i-  re(|Mired  in  liirinfj;  than  under  the 
foinier  hit  and  miss  method-.  The  entire  selecti\-e  scheme 
co!lai)-es  if  tla  emplo\e^  do  not  irive  advance  notii'e  when 
l"avm^;  .and  iIh'  forem.in  when  di-ch.iriiiny:  or  necdinu  an  in- 
creased force.  Time  i-  needed  for  ;ili\'  ade(|Uale  scu'ct  i\(' 
l)rocess.  l\e(|ui-il  ion  I'lanks  shoidd  ■  <■  picvided  each 
department.  If  the  foi'cman  re;ili/es  that  hi-  departmental 
luino\'er,  for  which  ln'  is  re>pon-ilile.  i-  dependent  on  this 
careful  -cle<ti(in.  he  will  do  hi-  p.irt  in  lilinu  his  re(juisitioil 
i)lank>  early.  The  employe  is  the  more  dillicult  one  to  coii- 
viufc  of  tlu;  uil  vantage  of  Riving  not  ice.     The  I'uur  ways  iu 


FIlRIXfi    AND    HOLDING 


53 


wh.Vh  thr  .hort  nn,i<v  l.al.it  oUho  on.ploy.s  may  ho  ,.luvkc,l 
Jiowcvcr,    lie  hy  ■  ' 

.    <';/''^"'«  <>"■  ■^•■l<-»<-.i  appl-,,,.!  tin,,,  and  ,.x,n-,...!v  a^k- 
|M«   l.nn   „,   notify   his   present    .,„>pIoyn-,    wlurh   in.pn.sos 

«)  Makin,  lun,  un<Instan,l  tl,at  futur.  nrcmnnon-la- 
tions  .lepcnd  on  Ins  manner  of  l.vivinji  • 

(1)  Tlu.  empl.,v„,v  nviproratmr  in  giving  advance 
n<.ti.Tsofdis(.ha,g,.an.liavi,.o-o(T  -'^'vantc 

Second    Interview. --   When    the    applicants    have    l.een 
u.n,noned  ,n  n.ponse  to  „,„  ,.,,„„,„■,  ,,„„i^„,,„     '  ^ 

--    'i.o    h,M    prolonged    intervieu.      Dunng    th,s    in,e,- 
V     I-  MPpheani   n.u.t   I.e  „ven  full  and   iVank  nilonna- 
.n  ahou,  t   e  uo.k,  ,ts  advantage.,  and  drau  hacks.     The 
hen  ,H.   of   tl,e   work    are  ..nphasi.ed    hy   son.e   en.plo" 

'    "     ""      ^'•'■^'    -"'    «-   "  —  urn    earnings    under.,    ted 

Wn^^^^^^^  ■tl^^',>..i,.on>houId 

'[    nude,!n,  fui.Mne..  giving  this  infonnation  .■„,,„,,„, 

<l.-an>far,,on  and  n,snn-s  a  n.ore  stahle  uv,rki,,g  force 
Judgment  of  Personality,       n the  selee.ne  poi„,   of 

u  purpose   oi,  he    n,,e:v.eni.,o  jnd.epe'onah,v 

■''•    -I',     -rorno,  ti.eapphean,  u-.llfi,  i,,ui,h,he''Spnh 

•'-'Pl'"-^''^'  <!h.  nnportauce  of  ,1,,.  ,pp|i,,„,.,  ,i,,,,,,^  P,  • 

•-■^-;"-'.on.      Dr.     Katherine    H,aekh,rd    would    ha 
;•''">"""•    ■-.ager    unohtrusiu.iv    hil    on,    an    analv 
-kno,n.g,h.,,.p,,,.,    H,..ac,eri.,ies.   theeoio;:^^^ 

K  ;:;:i'v:;'' ""•''''•''"■''-•'-•''--'>.  He.;  fron,th,s 

"""■  """■'■  "i:i'i.       Hut   Ihed.al;,  of  ,,ehi,.v, 


l-^  i.ltci-  huiil    the  (■ 

ineni  of 

tl.,,,,.,  ,  V^ '^""■""■^i«<''an.l,h,.  results  ohtauM-d 

"•  ^'•''  ":•■"•'•'""   ••"--"•'•■•'I  .•'-I'-I.t.on  of  ,h,.i,sehemes 

•A  nunc  ,.ron,.su>g  n.e.hod  of  dctcnmntiig  pc.>onali,y  is 


54 


TUE    HCMAX    FACTOR    TX    INDUSTRY 


tliit  of  IViiii  Scliiicidci-,  of  th(>  rriivpi-sity  of  Cincinnati, 
who  suuiicsts  tliat  th<-  (Mnpioymcnl  maiiai^^cr  in  conversa- 
tion note  -.vlictlicr  the  applicant  is  mental  or  manual,  di- 
rective or  dependent,  orijiinai  or  imitative,  social  or  self- 
cenfered,  an  indoor  man  or  an  outdoor  man,  a  man  of  large 
or  small  scoi)e,  settled  or  roving  in  disposition,  accurate 
or  macnuat.',  rapid  or  slow  to  coordinate  facts,  dynamic 
or  static.-''  These  characteristics  are  sin„ifi,.;,„t  'in  the 
matt(-r  of  vocational  .guidance,  hut  it  will  be  a  rarely  skillful 
manager  u  ho  can  so  define  the  applicant  in  the  brief  period 
of  an  interview. 

Present  Interviews.  -  When    the   euiploynient   manager 
of  the  furtis  Publishin.;  Company  claims  to  judge  the  ap- 
plu'ant  by  the  set  of  chin,  shape  of  mouth,  courteous  vigor 
of  hand  grip,  ad.ircss,  bearing,  steadiness  of  eye,  neatness, 
etc.,  one  caimot  but  wondei-  th.at  all  positions  should  require 
just   these  (lualihcations  to  insure  surcess.''^     The  nio.st  ac- 
complished F)n'varicator  will  have  a  steady  eve,  for  instance. 
But   the  (lualities   looked   for   by   Dean   Schneider  are   not 
superficial  and  indicatr  the  tendency  among  those  interested 
m   employment    mctho.Is  ;md    voc.ation.al   guidance   to   give 
the  intcrvi.^w  .a   much   needed  .leliniteness  of  object.     Pro- 
fe>s<ir  Scolt   te!!<  of  an  experiment   made  by  the  .American 
ToIkicco   Comp.any.^''     Six    m.aii.agers   .  f      d.'s   divi.~i.ms    in 
»lilT.'rent  parts  of  the  country  c.ime  together  to  select  ei-liteen 
sal(>smen  from   thirty-six  applicants,      [•lacii   man;ig(  r'mter- 
viewcd  .and  xl.vled  his  men  independently  and  by  his  own 
method.      In   th.'  case  .,f  t w."ti*y-eiulit    applicant.s  there  w.as 
not  even  .agnvment  .as  to  wiiether  th.^y  belonged  in  the  upper 
or  lower  half  of  the  group  of  thirly-.ix.     One  was  rated  as 
number  one  .and    thirty-two,   anotiier  as  three  and    thirty. 
The  experiment    indicates   th.at    ordinary   iiwth(.ds  of   inter- 
viewing are  thoroughly  unreliable. 

A  Concrete  Scale  for  Rating  Applicants        The  coik  rete 
scde  used   to-day   to  rale  the  ,,bility  of   the  ,,(h,rrs  of  our 


HIHIXC;    AND    Hor.DING 


55 


army  was  dovisod  by  Professor  S.oft  and  su-^frosts  a  systom 

appl.ant...     Ry  this  rating  systo,,,  a  Maj<.r  kr..ns  h.foro 
hnn  tl.o  „a,n..s  of  five,  tried  officers  rated    n  one  ,'ro  p  ! 

eordniMo  tlK.u-  ,.,..W  ,w;/..,  in  anotlu-Mn-l  J  ^ 
Mhoru^r,    ,n   another   hy  their  IraMup,  ete.     The  offi     r 
.n  hne  for  pron.ot.on  is  then  ,iven  the  nMin,  of  the    uperL 
ofheer  whon>  he  n.ost  resen.hles  on  ea,.h  point  ar.<l  his',, 

S,::;";;!::-:i;-:;~::;;;:;;d^^^^ 

previously  engag.-d  U,  :,  (ra.l,.,  are  sn.r,r,..tive  of  •,  ,.. 

answers  ,ite,  tlK-refore.  a  more  sat i«f icfor.-  Lmvi'v  f      •     i   • 
H...apae.,y  than  any  brief  .a, ..;  rto'h-  ^I^^^^ 

Psychological  Tests.  -  Appreeiat.n,  the  weakness  of  the 
""'TM.-u    m   dr.,..M,inM,^;  indui.hial   ea-v.-itv   ..nd   flu 

rt:;';;t,f:'^''T""'^'' .-'- r;;;"„.i: . ':- 

"1.  <^^ ,     n:,:':'  "■  - ";'' '-: "'"  '■■■  ''■■" »- > 

;i;.^M.,,,,,n.,,K.::,;;:r;:j:;;:';;:  ;;;;■— :';^:: 


56 


THE    HUMAN    FACTOR    FN    INDLSTRY 


psychoU'fiical  tests  have   imlicatcd   their  value   sufficiently 
to  eneourajie  further  careful  study. 

Development.       Tlu>    first    vocational    test    desisned    by 
psycliolnsiists  was  Professor  Seashore's  of  the  University  of 
Iowa.     His    pioneer   elTort    was    o   eliminate    the   "unfit" 
from  amonj;  those  sc'lectin^  a  mu<ical  career,  by  means  of 
tests  for  auditory  acuity  and  tonal  discrimuiation.     T(>le- 
phoiK'  companies  now  conunoiily  te-t  tlie  acuteness  of  hear- 
ing of  applicants.     Tlie  Army  and  Navy  a<td  to  such  a  test 
one  for  color  blindness.      In   industrial   fields  the   railroads 
and   some   industrial    plants  test   every  applicai      ''or   work 
f,,r   color   blindness.     Hut    psycholoiry   is   i)assin.u   from    the 
realm    of    these    nuMV    obvious,    physical    charact(>ristics    to 
the  testing  of  tlie  so-called  nu-ntal  characteristics  and  apti- 
tudes.    Not    only   sho\ild    a    teleph<Mie   operator   have   keen 
hea.riiifj:  and  dexterity  liut   ^ond  memory,  attention,  intelli- 
pence,  and   exact  it  u(ie  are   .all   e<s.'nti;d.       Professor  Muen- 
sterb("rr,  supi)li(d  the  Hell  Tel(-ph<>ne  !  ,.mi)any  with  tests 
for  these  (lualilies.     The  Curtis  rubli^hinj:  Comiiaiiy  apply 
Professor  Muensterlx-rg's  tests  to  their  clerks  and  steno}r- 
raphers  as  conliibutory  (>videne(>  of  e(rici"n<'y  ,ind  accuracy. 

Correlation  with    Experience,       Cluiiey    P.rothers    use   a 
series  of  Professor  Scott's  examinations  for  their  hi^h  ii;rad(> 
clerical,  sv.-t(«ma1  i/in^:,  c(.st,  executive,  ami  sale  forces.      It 
is  found  tiiere  that  "  the  correlation  of  tests  with  subse.,uent 
accompiishment  is  extremely  hi-ih  and  tliat  such  tests  otfer 
a  very  valuable  aid  in  select  ion. "'^     Thirty  of  their  efficiency 
e\l.erts  were  exinnine.l  and   llie  results  correlated  up  to  .S7 
p(>r  cent  uitli    the  judtiment  of   their  supervisors."     .Joseph 
and     Keiss    relv    in     part     on    psycholo^ic;d    te^ts    prepared 
l)y  profesM.r  Scott  fo"  the  •^election  of  their  employe^,  indud- 
inn    a    te-1    of    the    abditv    to    (m11(,w    iiist  ruci  ions.      Test  nm 
twenty-one   of    llnir   employes   both    operativoa   and  <-xec- 
Utives,  the   rcsulis   di-cked  up  actanately   i  >   nearly    every 

•.1     ,1     : 1      1   .,....,.  .i,..l  ,.w.i  itii'iti'^  lit"  ahilUv.'' 

CilSi     Viiili    ;  iil'i;    :  ■.■;■-;:  ■.;r    .;::■:    ;  • 


HIRING   AND   HOLDING 


67 


Salesmen's  Tests.  -  Of  VMo  tlic  salosniuii  has  rocoivcd 
mucli  attention  from  the  psycholoijiist.  A  cornjcrative 
uiKlertakinj:,  the  Bureau  of  Salcsniaiiship  Hcsrarcli,  has 
luMMi  organized  at  tlie  ( 'aiiictiic  Institute  (»f  Techiiolofiy,  hy 
tliiity  eoipoiations  enij)!oyin<j;  lar.u;(>  iiuini)ei's  of  sah'snien. 
Under  tlie  direction  of  Professor  Seott,  scientific  studies  of 
salesmanship  have  heen  undertaken  and  tests  are  IxMii}!; 
developed.^"  These  include  examination-  on  (1)  general 
native  inte!liji;(Mice ;  (2)  foic^i^ht  and  imauinat  ion  ;  (3) 
abihty  to  understand  nistructions  ;  (1)  ahiHty  to  see  what 
is  wroiifi  in  a  more  or  less  complex  situation,  and  to  correct 
it ;    (."))  ^(Mieral  information. 

Time  Required. —  ( )ccasioiially,  olijection  is  made  to 
the  leiijith  of  time  re(iuired  foi-  the  |)sycliolou;ical  examina- 
tioi  Tlie  Metropolitan  Lif(>  Insui'ance  Company  claims, 
however,  that  if  the  applicant  for  a  clerical  |)osition  caiuiot 
endure  a  three  and  a  half  hour  examination  he  or  she  will 
prohahly  not  he  able  to  do  a  day's  work.  The  Curtis  Puh- 
li.^hiiifr  Company  pays  fifty  cents  to  every  applicant  for  each 
day  deviled  o  the  exaiiiin.itions.  whether  oi-  not  th(>  ap|)li- 
cant  passers.  This  sum  pays  the  expens(>  involv(>d  of  car 
fares  and  limch.' 

Value  ill  Eliminating  Applicants.  -  TIkmc  is  every  indi- 
cation that  vocational  ,ind  industrial  psycholofziy  will  tend 
to  exterminate  the  old  try-out  method-  of  selecting  em- 
ploye's. The  Curtis  Puhli^hinn  ( "om!)any,  in  l\)\A,  after 
weedint:  out  SO  per  cent  of  th.ir  .applicants  hy  means  of 
the  inter\iew  and  an  examin.ition  ..f  the  app.lication  blank, 
^ave  the  j)syclioIonical  examinat  ions  which  elimin,ati'd  ,')() 
I'er  lent  (jI  the  remaining  (iroup.  \ii  iiisl  .nee  is  ^ijiveii 
when,  out  of  |\\  cnty-lu  i  ipplicant--  for  partifadarlv  exacting 
stcnouraphic  Woik,  onlv  one  passed  IIh'  tests  "  Previously, 
some  (Idzen  jiirls  would  |)rol>alilv  have  iieeu  trieil  out,  one 
after  another  during  ;i  period  of  several  weeks,  l)efor(>  the 
right  girl  could   iiave  heen  found,     liy   means  of  the  psy- 


i 


58 


THE   HUMAN   FACTOR   IN    INDUSTRY 


chological  test,  without  the  cost  to  the  worker  of  losing  a 
position,  or  to  tlie  coinpany  of  losing  the  time,  the  right 
one  out  of  the  twenty-tive  was  found  within  a  few  hours. 

Function  of  Psychological  Test.  —  In  the  selection  of  ap- 
plicants for  highly  si)ecialize(l  work  the  function  of  the 
psychological  test  will  he  to  eliminate.  But  in  work  re- 
quiring lower  and  conseiiuently  more  usual  grades  of  ability 
the  psychologist  will  assist  in  placement  rather  than  se- 
lection. Mr.  Feiss  emphasizes  the  fact  that  general  intelli- 
genc(>  tests  are  not  used  to  I'liminate  hut  to  place  applicants 
at  the  Clothcraft  Shops.  As  an  (>xample  of  what  the  use  of 
the  Hinet  tests  might  make  avoidal)le,  he  tells  the  story  of  a 
young  girl  who  was  employed  hy  the  Clothcraft  Shoi)s  and 
put  on  a  simple  opiTation  where  she  became  very  efhcient. 
She  was  advanced  and  was  una!il(>  to  make  good  though  tried 
out  cm  various  operations.  She  hnally  (luit,  but  returned  in  a 
few  months  and  was  tried  out  on  machine  work.  She  again 
failed,  and  when  at  last  put  back  on  a  simpler  operation  re- 
quiring less  dexterity  Mu\  intelligence,  she  began  to  progress 
until  now  her  earnings  average  with  the  best.'' 

Placement  of  Low  Average  Mentality.  -  Much  of  the 
work  in  industry  can  be  done  by  the  per.son  of  average  or 
low  mentality,  although  there  will  probably  never  be  a 
return  to  the  system  by  which  a  mamifacturer  in  England, 
in  1815,  agreed  with  a  parish  to  take  in  his  factory  otie  idiot 
w^ith  every  twenty  sound  children."  One  industry  can  af- 
ford no  employes  of  merely  average  intelligence,  while  it 
may  l)e  that  another  can  utilize  few  ment;i  iy  superior  em- 
ployes. If,  as  has  been  claimed,  from  hve  to  fifteen  per 
cent  of  the  emi)loyes  in  .any  factory  are  subnormal,  there 
is  h(>re  a  field  for  psychol^^^ica!  i)la<'en\ei)t  in  industry  whose 
surface  has  scarcely  lieen  scratched.'''' 

Hut    the  millennium    is   not  y»'t   in  sight.     Psvchologista 
themselves   will    not    prophesy.     As   Proh-s.sor   Whipple   re- 


'J    J- 


-•t?'"-" 


HIRING   AXD   HOLDING 


59 


wear  a  voil  of  nioflosty  and  not  sock  to  omulato  tho  boast- 
ings of  physiognomic  charlatans  who  claim  to  have  selected 
12,000  persons  for  12,000  jobs  withont  one  singh^  mistake, 
by  their  system  of  concave  and  convex  faces."  ■*"  Further- 
more, the  prol)lem  of  selection  can  never  be  entirely  solved 
by  even  (he  most  cleverly  devised  psychological  examina- 
tion. Such  methods  of  prolongetl  ol)serva(ion  as  Dean 
Schneider  can  employ  in  the  College  of  En;:incering  at  the 
University  of  Cincinnati,  \vl  re  lie  experiments  with  (he 
young  worker  while  in  trainii.g,  alone  provide  for  adcijuate 
vocational  guidanc".  I'ntil  (he  schools  comtnonly  adopt 
vocational  training  for  the  older  pupil-  and  scientific  vo- 
cational guidance  as  part  of  (heir  curriculum  there  can  be 
no  real  adjustment  of  man  and  job. 

Physical  Examinations.  Purpose.  —  The  physical  en- 
trance examination  in  industry  has  exlendcd  rapidly  as  a 
result  of  the  passage  of  the  workmen's  compensation  legis- 
lation. Its  oln-ious  purpose  is  (o  pr()(ect  th(>  industry  from 
the  danger  of  accidents  among  workers  who  aro  not  phvsi- 
cally  (it.  anil  yet  the  elimination  of  (he  unfit  shouki  be  only 
a  secondary  aim  of  the  medical  examination.  The  main 
objects  are  properly  -o  proted  the  prospective  cmf)loye 
by  placing  him  it)  a  posidon  in  which  such  physical  limi- 
tations as  he  may  have  will  not  be  disadv.'intageous  to  him- 
self, to  his  fellow  work(Ms,  or  to  (he  indu  v.  He  nuist  be 
protected  from  self-injury,  his  fellow  w.-rkers  from  con- 
tagion or  accidents  rcsuhing  from  his  physical  disability, 
and  (he  indusdy  from  .i  decreased  ou(put  and  (he  ex|H'nse 
of  compensation.  This  pro(ec(ion  demands  n(t(  the  rejection 
of  (he  physically  iiiii)crfec(  worker  bu(  his  careful  placcuient. 

In  highly  hazardous  occupation^,  and  in  indus(ries  in 
which  (here  is  bu(  sligld  variety  of  occupation,  ;i  high  re- 
jecdoii  ra(e  is  perhaps  reasonal>le  and  <>xcnsable.  I'nder 
other  condidons,  it  usually  indicates  a  lack  of  ;ipprecia(ion 

iiiiL'u  oiiiicb  iiruiy,  wiin 


^•^        AAA    *   VfA   « 


Tl. 

i.  lie 


60 


TIIK    HUMAN    FACTOR    1\    INDUSTRY 


its  ripiil  i^liysical  roquiromonts,  lojoctcil,  in  tlio  first  draft, 
in  1017.  l)('t\v('cn  30  and  40  per  cent  of  tlic  men  called. 
Such  a  prnporlion  of  physical  rejections  would  he  suicidal 
to  industry.  A  short-sighted  i)olicy  and  inailequate  analysis 
of  occupations  seems  to  he  iiulicated  where  a  hat  manu- 
facturing comi)any  and  a  life  insuranci'  company  rejected 
respectively  as  many  as  25  and  35  per  cent  of  their  appli- 
cants for  physical  leasons  alone.  The  Stetson  Company, 
in  till'  year  ending  October.  1015,  rej(>cte(l  TS  of  311  appli- 
cants examined."  During  the  year  endiiig  Xovemher,  1017, 
in  th(>  Meti'opolitan  Life  Insurance  Company,  770  out  of 
'J'JOl  applicants  i'ail(>d  to  pass  the  medical  examination.^- 

Tei'hnical  skill  and  ment.al  ability  do  not  necessarily  co- 
incide with  perfect  health.  To  seiau'e  tlie  former  no  industry 
can  al'ford  to  reject  the  nuiny  ajiplicants  whose  physical 
condition  is  imi)erl"ecl.  Many  firms  realize  this.  Sears, 
Roebuck  and  Comp.any.  in  101('>.  out  of  7000  ai)plicants 
for  work  found  22  per  cent  with  a  definite,  diseased  condi- 
tion. Of  these  only  3.1  per  cent  were  refused  (Muployment 
and  the  other  is.O  per  cent  went  to  work  in  carefully  se- 
lected positions."  The  Hike-Kumler  Company,  a  depart- 
ment store  in  Cleveland,  in  tme  year  rejected  only  5  per 
cent  of  their  applicant^  for  physical  reasons  ;done.  The 
reasons  for  lhe<e  rejections  were,  in  tlieir  order  of  freiiuency, 
veneri'a!  disease.  tul>erculo~is.  contagious  skin  trouble, 
eye  diseases,  and  pliy>ic,il  infirmities.  ()5  per  cent  were 
in  good  condition  and  tlie  remaining  30  per  cent  were 
watchcii  with  weekly  re-e\aminat ions,  while  cases  of  defec- 
tiv(>  teeth,  nose  and  tlud;it  tidul>le.  delVcii\i'  vi-ion,  tl.at 
feet,  varicose  veins,  and  hiTiiiji  were  corrected,  in  part  at 
least."  Cheney  brother-  lan  provide  similar  records.'*  The 
Chicago  and  Norliiwe-iern  ii.iilioad  found  12  per  cent  of 
men  ex.imimd  unlit  for  the  t'orin  of  employment  sought." 
An  Aid  in  Placement  of  the  Unfit        That  the  importance 

ui    piojier   piaemn    i^   iiie  main  ihhimi^c  ui    iiiC  iiiOdiCaJ  07\dm- 


HIRING    AXD   HOLDING 


61 


ination  is  clearly  pointed  out  by  Dr.  C.  CJ.  Farnum,  of  the 
Avory  Conipaiiy,  who  says,  "We  are  continually  asked 
what  we  do  about  men  with  one  arm  or  one  \vg,  with  bad 
vision  or  defective  heariiijj;,  with  those  that  have  hernia 
or  Bright 's  disease,  or  high  blood  pressure  or  heart  disease 
or  any  other  of  the  thousand  and  one  defects  the  American 
workmen  possess.  What  do  we  do?  Why,  we  put  them  to 
work,  but  we  put  them  to  work  compatible  with  their  con- 
dition and  get  busy  on  the  improvement  of  that  condition."  '^ 
In  this  connection  might  be  cited  the  case  of  one  Philadelphia 
manufacturer  of  bolts,  nuts,  and  rivets,  who  has  found  by 
chiuiging  a  foot  treadle  to  a  hand  motion  that  men  twisted 
with  spinal  meningitis  and  otherwise  crippled  make  better 
workmen  than  physically  fit.  employes."'^  The  Crocker- 
Wheeler  Company,  manufacturers  of  electrical  supplies, 
has  taught  thirty  l)lind  people  how  to  wind  coils  for  arma- 
tures, a  procc.-^s  in  which  the  sense  of  touch  is  all-important. 
The  Pennsylvania  State  Bureau  of  Employment  recently 
studied  the  case  of  "  a  mati  paralyzed  in  both  ankles  and 
preventcfi  by  the  physical  examination  tt^st  from  .securing 
work  at  his  trade  of  machinist  in  the  larg(>  industrial  phi'-.ts. 
He  was  successfully  placed  in  a  smaller  shop  on  special 
work  of  an  intricate  character." 

Pro[)er  places  can  !«>  found  even  for  persons  suffering 
from  tuberculosis  or  in  whom  th(>  disease  has  Ikmmi  recently 
arrested.  The  Cincimiati  Bureau  of  th(^  Handicapped  is 
placing  many  of  this  cla.><s  as  well  as  fhidiiig  suitable  (.ccupa- 
tions  for  tho^e  wlio  suffer  fidin  various  other  handicaps.'*' 
The  continued  financial  success  of  the  semi-philanthropic 
workroom  uiuler  the  diicction  of  the  Committee  on  the 
.h'wi>h  Tuberculous  is  another  indication  of  the  possibility 
and  r\rii  au\.itilage  of  using  persons  not  in  perfect  health.'"* 
The  Metr(i]Hilitan  I.ile  Insur.nice  Company  lias  in  its  Home 
Office  several  hundred  clerks  who  have  at  some  time  been 
trCuietl  ioi   t ubciciiiosis. 


62 


THE   HUMAN   FACTOR   IN    IXDUSTRY 


A  chanpo  in  attitudo  toward  medical  examinations  is 
imminent.  The  mcflical  examination  at  entrance  will 
gradually  assume  its  r.al  function  as  a  moans  of  proper 
placing.  It  will  result  in  benefit  to  both  employer  and 
applicant.  The  largely  justifiable  hostility  of  labor  leaders 
that  has  accompanied  its  introduction  will  tend  to  disap- 
pear. 

References.  —  Two  kinds  of  references  are  ordinarily 
rp<^'iired,  (1)  character  references  and  (2)  references  from 
f  .mer  employers.  The  first  are  of  comparati\ely  little 
value  because  the  witnesses  are  not  disinterested.  But 
employers  ordinarily  ignore  the  second  group  as  well  be- 
cause of  the  difficulty  in  securing  any  but  vague  and  in- 
different replies  to  their  requests  for  information.  Furtner, 
it  has  been  suggested  that  it  will  always  hv  dangerous  ^o 
rely  on  even  the  most  complete  reference,  since  a  man  who 
fails  with  one  employer  may  succeed  in  a  new  environment. 

General  references,  addressed  to  "whomever  it  may  con- 
cern," are  no  longer  credited.  Progressive  employers  do 
not  give  them  but  arc  offering  to  furnish  references  upon  the 
request  of  employers.  If  employers  answered  queries 
about  former  employes  frankly  and  carefully,  they  would 
not  only  really  help  the  employe,  by  preventing  his  being 
placed  in  work  for  which  he  is  unfit,  but  in  the  end  their 
frankness  would  be  reciprocated.  The  Edison  Company 
has  forms  for  this  purpose,  on  one  of  which  the  foreman  of 
the  former  employe  supplies  information  as  to  the  character 
of  the  service  rendered  and  on  another  the  Employment 
Bureau  makes  entries  regarding  dat(>s  of  employment, 
causes  of  leaving,  and  records.  If  a  stamped,  addressed 
envelope  is  inclosed,  together  with  a  form  containing  specific 
questions,  more  answers  uud  iiioro  reliable  information  will 
be  secureil. 

Value  of  Definite  Questions.  —  The  principal  difficulty 
witii  tile  ieiiers  now  seiii   to  previous  eiiipioyers  iies  in  tne 


HIRIXG   AXD   HOLDING 


63 


vagueness  of  the  questions  asked.  A  short  questionnaire 
has  been  adopted  b}  Theney  Brothers  asking  the  "  former 
employer  simply  to  eheok  otT  in  spaees  provided,  the  nature 
of  the  applicant's  service  as  to  work,  conduct,  ability, 
and  character."  In  ninety-five  per  cent  of  the  cases  in- 
vestigated triey  receive  sufficient  information.''*  The  ref- 
erence letter  form  used  by  the  War  Department  is  brief 
and  yet  definite  and  is  e.xceedingly  suggestive.  This  allows 
space  to  place  a  check  mark  under  Verj-  Good,  Good, 
Fair,  Poor.  Very  Pnnr  for  certain  distinct  qualifications 
such  as^  "Trustworthiness,"  "Ability  to  manage  other 
workers,"  "Skill  in  a  given  occupation,"  etc.  Unless  such 
'I  plan  of  asking  pointed  and  definite  questions  is  adopted, 
former  employers  answer  carelessly  and  usually  favorably, 
if  ai  all. 

^\^len  the  emphasis  is  placed  on  the  proper  placement  of 
the  individual,  reference  from  previous  employers  will  be- 
come increasingly  valuable,  and  their  purpose  of  the  past 
—  to  weeii  out  labor  agitators  and  floaters  —  will  become 
of  minor  importance. 


InDIC  TING    AND   RETAINING   THE   EMPLOYE 

The  period  immediately  following  the  selection  of  a  new 
employe  i-  a  difPnilt  one.  It  will  determine  in  a  large 
measure  his  futu  ■  success.  The  main  responsibility  for 
making  tiiis  period  as  easy  as  po.ssible  rests  on  the  employ- 
ment manager.  The  first  impression  of  the  new  plant  is 
the  one  that  he  has  given  ;  in  ti.e  mind  of  the  new  employe 
he  is  all-important  because  in  his  hands  lay  the  giving  of  the 
job.  Every  effort  must  be  made  to  make  the  impression  a 
favorable  one.  In  the  final  interview  the  details  id  the  or- 
ganization should  be  made  clear  and  the  general  s{)irit  of 
the  em^ploycr  ..,nveyed.  But  further  efi^ort  is  necessary 
=uccco;;fi;iiy  -o  mduci    lue  worker.      Printed  rules,  instruc- 


64 


THK    HUMAN-    KAC'TUR    IX    IXDUSTKV 


lions,  aiiu   suggestions  are  of  (ii  lin.'t   !ic!i)  and  are  wuiely 
U«'(l. 

Employes'  Handbooks.  -  It  is  difficult  to  makr  piiated 
instinct  ions  as  inlcr(>stin}i  lo,  or  as  popular  wuh,  the  eni- 
plo\(  aswitli  llie  cniployn.ieiit  nianajici-.  'i'iiey  should  he  as 
brief  ami  as  concise  as  |)ossil)le,  and  1  fewer  >iie  itrtiuc- 
tions  and  tlie  more  coniplele  llie  inforn.  it  ion  iaouglit  within 
the  covers  of  one  or  two  booklets  th(>  more  sure-  a.c  they 
to  conunand  attention.*  The  Dviiniso,-:  Manr.lacturhi<>; 
Company  and  Curtis  Publishinir  Company  Irne  the  em- 
ploye's name  printed  on  the  cover  of  t'le  rule  book,  which  is 
given  to  him  immediately  on  enpiaii-ement,'"'  so  ihat  he  will 
the  more  readily  carry  it  home  and  read  it.  The  Common- 
wealth Edison  Company  re(iuire  the  emi)loyc  lo  siun  a  re- 
ceipt for  the  book  stating  that  "Mie  policus,  me'hods,  and 
rules  of  tlie  comi)any,  as  set  foil'.  Kierein  have  t)een  care- 
fully studied."  This  receipt  nuisi  reach  th(>  employment 
department  within  five  days  after  his  (-ntc'-ing  tne  com- 
pany's service. 

Follow-up  Work.  --  In  order  to  impress  tlie  new  employe 
with  the  real  interest  that  the  coriioration  has  in  liis  future, 
the  employment  manaf^cM'  freciuently  introduces  him  to  the 
foreman  or  other  iimnediate  superior.  It  then  becomes 
the  latter's  duty  to  make  further  intioductlons  and  to  ex- 
plain the  work  in  detail.  Every  effort  siioiild  be  made  to 
make  the  new  worker  "feel  at  home"  and  appreciate  llie 
imiiortance  of  his  work.  In  order  to  .liminate  the  "  sky- 
larkint-"- "  and  practical  jokinp;  at  the  expense  of  a  ri(>w  em- 
ploye, it  has  been  suj^gested  that  a  fellow  work(M  b(>  aj)- 
pointed  as  temporary  .u:uar<lian.  To  overconie  any  pre- 
liminary difficailties  tiiat  niay  arise,  '  follow-up  interviews  " 
are  held  within  a  few  weeks  after  tlie  (>m[)loye  starts  work, 

♦  An  <'\(i-llc'nt  h.iok  is  ii.~(h!  1)\-  ilio  Mill<T  Lock  ( 'oiiiiKiiiy.  It  coniliinrs 
information  .in  hdurs  of  uork,  \vai;i'  sciiliw,  and  methods  of  paymont.  with 
Huffi  y-iii  si  iui\  1'  t*  iuni  ;ii!  rApl.iii.it  i"ii  t .;  t  rir  Tr.cuK'^ii.  cuuriiiiuiiu:,  :iuu  ^uvi^i 
ttdvantage.i  offered  Ijy  the  company.     (1917.) 


HIRIXC.    AND    HOLDINf} 


65 


by  tl..>  omployn.ont  officials  of  the  Eastern  Manufacturing 
(^ompany.  the  Cennan-Aincrican  Button  Cunipany,  and  the 
Curtis  Puhhshinji;  Company,  amonp;  others. 

Th-  follow-up  function  of  the  oniplovmcnt  bureau  ro- 
solv<-.,  .(self  into  the  difficult  one  of  vocational  guidance 
The  ispnt  (If  Corp.  of  the  (^.tire  plant  depends  on  the  em- 
ployment manager's  skill  in  din.tinK  Hio  promotion  of  the 
en-,  loye  as  rapidly  and  no  more  I'apidlv  than  his  ability 
warrants;  u,  adjusting  causes  of  <lilference  l)ot\veen  workers 
and  forem(>n  ,  m  eliminating  general  causes  of  dissat-^fac- 
tion;  an.i  m  placing  a  "  mi- tit  "  or  failure  where  he  will 
'■nake  good."  It  is  this  function  which  is  the  most  im- 
portant, least  developed  and  most  interesting  part  of  tli 
work  of  a  centralized  employment  hureau. 

Tardiness  and  Absences  Causes  of  Labor  Loss  —  Labor 
loss  attends  the  failure  to  k.n-p  the  number  of  workers  on 
the  pay  roll  up  to  the  required  stande.rd  for  everv  work 
hour  ;  the  employment  of  a  superfluous  mnnber  of  workeis  • 
poor  attendanc.>,  and  large  labor  turnover.*  Every  ca.se  of 
lateness    or    absenteeism    m(>ans   a   drop    in    output,    while 

tardmess  is  in.ipient  ab.sence  "  and  "  ab.sence  is  incipient 
labor  tui'novei'."-''' 

Methods  of  Correcting  Bad  Attendance.  —  The  first  step 

Hi  reducing  absenteeism  o;-  tardiiu-.ss  i.s  the  attendance  record 
Knowledge  that  such  records  luv  being  kept  in  itself  dis- 
courages maling(>ring  or  unnecess.ary  ;d).sences.  If  a  time 
clock  is  used,  it  may  be  placed  at  theeni  ranee  of  a  small  plant 
If  the  working  force  is  large,  howev(-r,  to  avoid  congestion 
time  clocks  are  often  provided  for  ea.'h  department.  On 
clock  (■;u•d^  or  speeial  f,.rm<  k.pt  in  departmental  Hie,-  the 
•  inployment  ■n.iiiairer  ..r  f.-reir.an  mav  record  n^asons  for 
bad  attendance.     Daily  or  m.mllilv  records  sliould  .show  the 

*  I-ur  nR-tl.,Hls  „f  ,.„r,>„uOn,ir  l:,!..,r  l...s  rausod  l.y  variations  fn,m  tho 

standard  work  force  and  poor  attrndan.P  soo  H.m,lh„r,L-  „„  i,-„,„i 

Mana^omont.  U  S.  -ni„pi„.  Board  i;,nor„.,„.y  Kloo,  Corporation.' Speri^l 
Bulletin,  An '..J,- Lavs;    Phila..  IDls.  ' 


66 


THE    HUMAN    FACTOR    IN    INDUSTRY 


nuinl)or  of  (Miiployes  lato  or  absent,  tho  number  of   'ours 
lost   by  oadi  and  the  reasons  for  absence,  wliet)'  laid 

olT,"    "vacation,"    "accident,"    "sickness,"    "  fai  ca- 

sons,"    "  grievance,"    "  unknown,"    all    of    which  be 

classified  also  ;r-  Mvoidable  or  unavoidable. 

Making  Lateness  Difficult.  —  At  the  Midvale  Steel 
Company  niriety-tive  per  cent  of  all  lat(>ness  has  been  found 
to  occur  within  the  first  half  hour,  and  most  of  that  in  the 
fiist  tm  minutes.  Some  plants  lock  their  pates  at  a  cer- 
tain time  after  'ipeniiifj;  hours  and  keep  them  locke(l  until 
the  end  of  th(>  work  period,  so  that  only  .hose  who  are  prompt 
are  allowed  to  work.  This  is  the  case  at  th(>  (leneral  Electric 
Company  a1  Lyim.  tlie  l'or(>  Uiver  Shipbuildinp;  Company, 
the  Cleveland  Metal  Products  Company,  and  the  large  textile 
mills  at  Lowell.  At  the  Fore  River  Shipbuilding  Company, 
however,  a  late  <>mi)loye  who  feels  that  he  has  an  excuse 
may  submit  it  to  the  chii-f  (imeke(>per  who  in  turn  refers 
it  to  the  f(ir<'man.  Willi  llie  foremsui's  i)er;iiission  the  man 
is  admitted.  .\t  th(>  Strawbridge  and  Clothier's  Store  in 
Philadelphia  those  who  are  late  nmst  sign  a  slip  at  a  central 
desk,  a  systi'in  which  has  re(luc(>(l  lateness  from  between  5 
and  10  per  cent  to  2. a  jier  cent.''" 

Investigation  of  Absentees.  -  Home  visiting  for  the  in- 
vestigation of  aliseiiccs  by  some  one  person  sjx'cially  dele- 
gated to  that  work  is  customary  in  many  large  |)lants.  .\b- 
senteeism  has  been  est  iiiiatiMJ  to  range  f.v.m  2  percent  to 
10  p(  r  cent  of  the  plant  cmollmciit.  One  p(>rson  by  careful 
planning  can  cov<r  aliout  twenty  calls  in  four  hom-s,  if  the 
calls  are  reasonably  near  each  other.  i'he  investigation  of 
:ill  iibseiices,  therefore,  in  a  force  of  al«ont  live  hundred  people 
will  reiiuire  the  full  timeof  one  person  it  on  loot.  'Ilie  use  n\ 
an  automobile  saves  at  least  half  time  at.l  w..uM  en.ilile  one 
investig.itor  to  cover  the  nee<led  -i-iliiin  lot  ;i  foieeof  one 
thousjuid.  'The  United  S.at.  ■  Puliiic  Ilealtti  Service  advises 
against  the  extra \aganee  of  using  the  jilant   nurse  or  doctor 


I 


« 


HIRIXG    AXD    HOLDIXG 


67 


for  visitins  abscntoos  (jthor  than  those  known  to  be  ill. 
In  some  plants  tliis  is  done,  hownver,  to  ni;ike  it  appe;.' 
that  the  visit  ^s  made  from  a  desire  to  friv(>  help  rather  than 
uivestigate.  A  tactful  investigator  may  avoid  antagoniz- 
mg  the  (Mii,)loye  just  as  easily  and  may  report  to  th<-  doctor 
or  nurse  when  medical  attention  is  needed. ^»  If  it  seems 
desirable  to  know  the  reason  for  absence  imm(.(liately,  a 
corps  of  visitors  will  be  n.H-ded.  Ry  cncouraginK  the  "em- 
ployes to  re[)ort  necessary  absences  in  advance  and  to  send 
word  by  telephone  or  a  fellow  employe  oti  the  day  of  ab- 
sence, or  by  investigating  absences  oidy  after  a  lapse  of  a 
few  days,  the  necessary  visiting  can  be  much  reduced. 

Individual  Records  and  Bonuses.  —  "  Docking  '•  an  em- 
ploye's wages  in  excess  of  time  lost  is  not  only  illegal  but 
meffectiy(>.     Regular  montiiiy  l)oini-es  [)aid  every  employe 
m  addition  to  w-es  from  which  deductions  are  made  for 
absenteeism  have  proved  a  valuable  inc<-ntive  to  good  time- 
keeping.    An  employe  of  the  Metropolitan  Life  In.surance 
Company,    receiving   not    more   than   ?(1()  a  week   who   has 
worke.l  a  full  cal-ndar  year  and  Inst  no  time  through  absence 
or  tardiness,  is  allowed  a  bomn  of  a  week's  salary.     Time 
lost  for  any  cau.^e  is  charged  ag.dnst    the  bonus  and  a  })ro 
rata  deduction  is  made  therefrom  on  the  basis  (,f    W]  hours 
per  we(>k.      When  the  total  tiiiu    lost   aggregates  2l' hours, 
nr  the  nun)ber  of  times  tardy  is  10  or  over,  no  bonus  is  paid! 
'.  le  po.ssibic  Weakness  in   thi>  system  is  that    tli(>  period   of 
'"•mH  payuKMii  may  l)e  to(.  long.      Small   monthly   bonu.ses 
would  iH.ssibly  attract  more  attention.'-'     In  an  eastern  puh- 
hshing  house  each  department  has  its  own  time  dock  which 
<'ach  emi)loye  rings  twi.v  f.,r  five  d.iys  in  the  w.>ek  and  <mee 
<»n  Saturday.    The  p.^rcentane  ..1  tardiness  to  the  total  number 
of  rings  IS  estimated  monthly  for  each  departmr>iit   and  de- 
partmental records  prominently  poNled.  'rhis.snn.>p<Tcent;.ge 
IS  recorded  foreac'i  employe  and  referred  to  wli.n  individual 
promotions  or  rai.<es  m  .sala.y  are  under  con.-ideration.'"' 


Ii| 


68 


tup:  human  factor  in  industry 


Turnover.  —  To  mi  rid  of  an  cmployo  is  far  casio/  than 
to  help  him  "  inakc  j^ood,"  in  i\\v  short  run;  and  to  let 
him  fjo,  l(>ss  troulilcsomc  than  to  find  out  in  advance  any 
eonditiou  of  dissatisfaction  and  to  :(itcmpt  to  remedy  it. 
But  th"  fonnulation  of  turnover  statistics  for  his  plant  will 
convince  the  oasy-f;oin<i;  and  unsuspecting  einploy(>r  of  a 
startling  weakness  in  his  oifi;anization.  The  National 
Einploj'ment  Managers'  Conference  in  lOlS  aj^reed  upon  the 
following  definition  lUid  method  of  computing  lal)or  turn- 
over. 

Dkfimtion  : 

Formulating  Turnover  Statistics.  —  1.  Labor  Turnover 
for  any  period  consists  of  tiie  number  of  separations  from 
service  during  that  peiiod.  Separations  include  all  (juits, 
discharges,  or  lay  otT'^  for  any  rea-on  wiiatsoever. 

2.  Pircinlaijc  Lolxir  Titnionr  for  any  period  is  the  ratio 
of  the  total  number  of  separations  during  the  period  to  the 
uv(>rage  numlu  r  of  employes  on  the  force  report  during  that 
period.  The  forc(>  repoit  gives  the  number  of  Mien  aitually 
working  each  day  as  shown  by  attendance  records. 

Co.MriTATioN- : 

1.  Find  the  total  numiier  of  sei)arations  for  the  period 
considered. 

2.  Divide  by  the  avrage  of  th(>  lunnber  actually  work- 
ing each  day  througiioiit  the  perioii. 

;{.  Multiply  by  the  propel'  factor  to  ri'duce  to  a  yearly 
basis. 


Kjc(irii/ili.  Tiital  iiuiiiImt  of  s»'|)iiriilii>ns  (iiiriiif,'  WfM  k,  l{(H). 
Daily  rorrc  niHirts  wurlurs  iiciiiaily  on  the  jntii,  \U,  l(»2();  T., 
lo(i". :  W..  1070;  'I'll..  lo:r. :  \\.  1010;  .s.,  <.t<io,  .\\  crime  for 
v/eok  =  lo:{7.     I'crcciitaijc  lalmr  tiiniovcr,  ,'5",".  x  oU  -  UJOl  per  ceut. 

romparativi'ly  few  employers  have  realized  that  for  every 
man  on  their  pay  roll  they  were  probably  iiiriii^'  at  least  one 


} 


HlRlX(i    AN'D    HOLDING 


60 


new  man  ovorv  yoar.     This  100  por  cont  turnover  was  vory 
t,^rneral  <-vrn  l),.fn,v  the  w.r,  an.|  is  a  sMfficient  arKuinrnt  to 
cause  any  .tnployer  t,.  study  the  reason  for  his  phint  turn- 
over.     Many    turnover    fiirures    have    been    larger       The 
federal  C.nnnission  ..n   le.histrial    delations  found  in  an 
investi-,iti(,n  of  the  eloak  and  suit  industry  of  New  York  in 
1011,  that  ui  10  oe.aipations   l()0()  p.M.ple  were  employed  to 
niauitam  a  inaxnnuni  workinj,'  force  of   ]0r)2."     An  auto- 
niohilr  fa.'tory  was  reported   in   1!)12  to  have  hired  21,000 
men  to  manitain  an  operatin^r  foree  of  1!),(XK)."     In   1913 
the  Fonl  Motor  Company  lun.d  o2,.}15  nu>n  U>  maintain  a 
total  of  14,000  .mployrs.^     Surh  fifruns  n.ight  hv  eited  ad 
infuntum  w,th  n.frren.r  to  dep.art.ne.it  stores,  .naihng  houses 
Iuii>l>or  eau>ps,  or  st.rl  foun.lries,  and  all  other  industries 
operatm-  m   the  pn-war  jH.riod  ui  comparatively  nonnul 
uidustrial  conditions.*  ■'-' 

KlTorts  have  l.cen  ma.le  to  estimat."  the  actual  cost  of 
labor  turnover  from  (1,,.  standpoint  of  indu.strv.  The  cost 
shoul.l  mcludc,  acc-.rding  to  Mr.  Fisher,'"^  the  expense  of 

(1)  lurniK  and  ' 

(2)  trainin^i  nrw  employes, 

(••i)  of  wear  an.l  tear  on  ecjuipment  operated  by  new 
iiands,  •' 

(I)  of  reduced  jiroduction  and 

(.">)  the  excess  plant  .■.luipntent  n<>eded  to  .ompensato  it 

(<»)  of  wasted  materials,  and  ' 

'")  increased  accidents. 
The  cost  of  a.lv.rtisinfT  fop  workers,  how<>ver,  an.,  the  l.-ss 
t.mR.l.lc  expense  of  lo.st  sal.'s  du<-  to  spoiled  work  or  .lelave<i 
^'liedules,  ,]„,  reduce.]  vitalitv  .and  ellicienev  in  the  workers 
'""  '"  "':  "l-'Mlinu-  of  then'  labor,  ami  the  inevitable 
;'"^<;nce  ol  i.,,r,hlr,nr,>s  and  concert.-.l  cfTort  where  tlwr..  is 
a  sliiltmu  uorkmn  fore.-  should  als..  be  i,;,  hided 

'Hh.  loues,  e-ti,nate  n.,,de  of  th,.  cost  to  industrv  of  lo.sing 

♦nur„„  U.o  «,.r,  turu,.N>.,   (,^urr,  .-x-vodoi  ail  p,«v,ou.  bouadr 


70 


THE    HUMAN    FACTOR    IN    INDUS  FRY 


and  roplaf'iiig  one  workor  is  .?2r).(M).*  More  commonly 
$50.00  is  tlic  estimate,  Init  sotiic  ciniilu;  .  rs  phu'(>  it  at 
$200.(X),'^  and  Mr.  Fisli  of  the  Norton  Company  gives  hc- 
tvvoen  8300.00  and  SiruLOO  as  tlic  pn.halilr  tv  f  cost  of  n 
placing  one  of  their  pieceworkers.  ()l)\iou>ly  tin  cost 
varies  in  every  case  an  1  with  every  grade  of  l:il)oi'  involved, 
the  only  constanl  factor  lii'ing  the  i'leri(:d  work  <>  entering 
a  new  employe  on  the  pay  roll  and  taking  tin  ild  one  ofT. 
Deere  and  Company  claim,  for  inst.ince,  lliat  it  .  SlOOOto 

break  in  a  new  foreman,  harring  accidents.'''  (  alculating  (^ 
a  S2").00  |)er  man  l)asis,  the  Ford  ( "ompany's  turnover  in 
1913  cost  a  mininunn  of  .81 .2t)I,2(K)  an<l  pioliahiv  more  than 
$2,000,000.^  .\n  interesting  .-inalysi-  of  turnovei  costs 
was  recently  niaile  !iy  an  eflicicncy  enginet  i  in  Pennsyl- 
vania nnmitions  plant,  wliere  the  loss  in  om-  year  dne  to 
hiring  (ilOd  men  to  maintain  a  (|Uola  nf  1  I  was  est'mated 
far  to  exceed  S12(),3(MI,  which  covere*!  oiil\  the  st  of  hir- 
ing, instruction,  damag<',  and  reduced  pioducUon,  on  a 
basis  (<f  l?2.").00  \hv  man  hired.  This  oiiiiltcd  the  cost  of 
excess  j)!ant  expense,  one  item  of  which  was  ascertained 
to  he  .S32,  lOO.-'''  The  gap  Ix'twcen  tlie  pdssilile  efficiency 
of  a  stalilc  force  and  tlie  .ictnal  elliciency  was  claimed  to  be 
<><]uivalent  to  an  underproduction  of  some  20.000  pounds  of 
powder  dally,  or  .">()  per  cent  of  tlie  .amount  actually  pro- 
duced. Such  figmes  ;i<  these,  .although  imjx'rfect,  ai'e  gen- 
erally acccptecl  by  i)usiness  men  a-^  ,an  uii  lerstalement  of  a 
great  and  umiecessary  wa>te  to  .,  hich  we  are  ac(iuiescing 
in  our  present  indu^^trial  oiganizatiou.  NO  .atlempt  h.is  a 
yet  been  m.ide  to  measure  the  cost  lo  the  woi  ker  and  to  his 
family  of  this  coiilimi.d  shifting. 

Analyzing  and  Reducing  Turnover.        A  rei  ent  examina- 
tion   of    100, (H)0   causes   of   leaving   employment    in    sc\  eral 


♦  For  iiu'tliiMl^  iif  ilc'tcriiiitiiriiz  111''  '  ">t  of  l.ilnir  tunii.M'r  -ci'  Mr.  I'l-iIkt'ii 
arUili'  in  I  lie  Uulli'Uii  uf  l\iv  L'niloi]  Statra  lluri-uu  of  Luiiil  .Siutistirs,  No. 


HIRIVO    A.VD    HOLDIVO 


71 


reprosoni.tiv..  plants  .,f  tl„.  ,.r,„t,trv  rovoalo.l  that  74  0 
por  .-nt  ,u.t  .,f  thrir  ou„  a.T„nl,  12.2  percent  were  laid 
oil,  l.i.2  per  .•<.,it  ^^■v,v  (!iscIiartrc.l.->«  The  larRo  peroont- 
ag-  of  Mios,.  ,, Hitting  i.  ,,rol,al.ly  ai.m.nnal  and  ,i„e  to  the 
unusual  indu-  lai  conditions  of  war  ti:.i(>.  The  study  of 
rrasons  f<,r  lea  ing  is  of  vital  in.,„.rta.H...  in  nHliuing  turn- 
over. A  nil)l.er  eonipany  .unployin^  12.000  men  found  in 
tlie  analvsis  of  th,.!,-  turnover  of  „ne  year,  that  a  larKe  ner- 
"""taue  nf  ,1„.  „„.„  |,.ft  heeauseof  the  ,nonotonv  of  tho 
^V'.rl  -  ,s„,.h  a  .■ondilinn  nuuht  have  |,,.en  re.ne.lied  hy 
'•<.utn,o.   tlu.    work,  r,    vh„rte,n-ng    hours,    <„•    provi.ling    fre- 

;•'""/  ""'■"■''-  "'■  '•'•^'-  ^""'  '-  '•-  '•'-'!>•  than  allowing 
iH'  turnover  to  eontinue.  The  IVnnison  Manufaeturing 
.H„pany,n  I-.m:,  n.lueedthe  n.nni.T  of  en.ploves  leaving 
iH-rause  ot  dissati>f.„.|io„  ui,h  .a.hrr  pav  or  work  to  17\  p.r 
-;>.t  of  the  nuniher  of  ihos..  le.ivin^r.  dissatisfied,  in  I!»i:^ 
Ihis  was  d,a.  to  ,!,..  work  of  the  cn.ployn.ent  .lepar[,n,>nt 
install,  ij  III   101  I.'' 

A...o„hn,    ,o    K     r.    riould,   a    factory    employing   some 
-;•<).    ,,,,,.   ,,„md   ,0  „„,  ...,,„   ,„-  „„,^,.  ^^.,_^^   ,^^^^   ^|^^___^   .^^ 

,     ''    "•*•  .'"''■  ""*    "■I"""''l    '".asons   for   leaving)   d.un^  -o 
;;<'<'^uiM.  ol   "worknig  eonditi,mv."     Th,.  reas.ms  classed  as 

■'•"'"""■■''•  ';'■  "'""•''"'  •■'<  l""ue,"  may  he  attributed  to 
'•■•tuscs  ov,r  winch  .he,.ompany  had  no  control.  Hut  these 
^^•;';    ""'.V   21    per  cent    of  the   total   r,.,a,sons  «iven  •' 

I  lie  usn.ahvaM.ns  for  leaving  <,npIoymont  may  Ix- grouped: 
I  work 
N'olunlary,  because  of  !  pay 

I  person.al  reasons  ; 

I  husin.ss  or  seasonal 
I  '••"'•'  "tV  for  till,  Ilia  I    ,n.s 

''i\"luiitaiA     I  i;         r 

">  ■  ;  I  di-ci])||ii,. 

because   j  f 

'  (iisehi'.rged  on  acrount  of  I  ""'f''"''^^  f'"''  work 

I  personal  cl,aract<r 


72 


THE    HUMAX    FACTOFt    1\    iXDUSTFlY 


A  rommitti'i'  of  the  Boston  Muiiaffors'  Association,  of 
which  Mr.  V.  II.  Fish  was  cliairniun,  has  su;j;^cst(>(!  a  vaki- 
able  form  for  aoalyziiiji  causes  of  tuiTiovcr.'"  This  makes  it 
possible  to  show  the  reasons  for  leaving  un<ler  ihe  headings 
of '-Left  of  own  accord,"  "  Disiiiarged,"  "Laid  off"  and 
"  Transferred."  The.se  are  again  .subdivided  into  32  detailed 
headings. 

From  th(>  use  of  such  a  form  one  could  doubtless  draw 
valuable  conclusions.  If  the  causes  of  leaving  were  grouped 
tuider  the  mc/re  general  classifications  of  (1)  "transfers 
within  the  Company,"  (2)  "  c.uises  of  leaving  for  which  the 
Company  was  not  to  blame,"  and  CV)  "  otlier  causes," 
the  result  might  be  of  even  frj-catei-  value.  If  it  is  of  no 
particular  importance  to  know  that  a  change  in  staff  is 
necessary  because  of  a  death  from  natural  causes,  or  be- 
cau.se  a  younger  emi)loye  hits  returned  to  school;  it  is  of 
prime  importance  to  analyz(>  discharge  and  carefully  to 
consider  th(>  ca.ses  of  jjcisoii.-,  who  leave  liecause  of  unsatis- 
factory working  conditions. 

Interviews  with  Those  Leaving.  -  Sm^h  statistical  analy.ses 
will  throw  iigiit  on  the  main  problems  of  luri;over  that 
confront  the  individual  |)lant.  This  comixisite  picture 
of  the  maladjustments  existent  in  th<>  personn.l  of  the  plant 
will  indicate  remedies  in  s,,ine  iiivtarices,  in  others  it  will 
direct  fiuther  stu.ly.  But  eacn  indivi.hi.d  case  of  leaving 
must  be  carefully  consid.  red.  The  underlyiniz;  cause  shoulil 
b(>  sought  out  and  removed  whenever  jxis^ible.  \,,  one 
leaving  voluntarily  should  be  .lilowed  to  draw  his  final 
pay  without  an  iiitrrvi^w  with  the  employment  manager. 
This  will  mean  tli:il  eveiy  employe  leaving  the  plant  has 
discussed  hi-,  diflicullies,  not  only  with  his  inunediafe  su- 
perior, but  with  an  imp.irti.d  third  person.  Thi-re  will  be 
exceptions,  of  cours)'.  wlna-e  there  i-  ik.  v\vt(.|ii  of  deferred 
p.'iyment  ;iiid  wh.'ie  the  employe  simply  di.v.ippcais  alter 
piiy  day. 


^ 


HIRIXC    AXD    IIOLDFXG 


73 


Transfers.    -- P.y  ,.l,t;,niinfr  interviews  with  those  leaving 
voluntarily  the  ...nploy.uenf    .lepart.nent    rnuv  often   effect 
adjustments    hy    transfers    and    pron,oti<,ns.'     The    larger 
the  orgaiuzat.on   the  more  simple  JMn'onies  the  problem  of 
transfer   ,o   m„re  ronj-vnial   or  otherwise  more  satisfactory 
^^.H•k.     The  Foni  Motor  Con.pany  transf,.rre,!  in  one  year 
-M/    men   who   had  given   noticv  of  leaving.''^     What"  the 
ompl.,y,nent   department    n.ay   aeron.plish    is   indicated   by 
tlu"  work  of  tlu-  departn,..nt  of  the  Dennison  Manufactur- 
ing Company,  where  there  were 

219   Transfers  Effcrtrd  in   1915.8 

(1)  For  promotion  -    10  per  cent  ; 

(2)  By  recjuest        1  jx-r  ,.,.„t  ^ 

(;|)   Beeaus,>  „f  failure  in  first  position  -  18  per  cent  ; 

(J)   IJeeaiisc  of  personal  demands   -  29  \m-  cent  ; 

{•))   For  miscellaneous  reasons  —  !»  p,-,-  (.(.n( 

Th,.  small  plant  ,,u,  also  aero,npli>h  much  in  this  field 
M'f^ht  adjustments  in  oerupation.>  will  often  suffi.e  to  eradi- 
•■^^'"  'l>ff>.;ult.es.  and  although  a  larg,>  transfer  rate  indicates 
-..se.ennous  ,.,Tort  on  th-  part  <.f  the  emph.ver  to  retain 
Ins  en,ph,y,.s,  .,  n.ay  also  be  a  sign  of  restlessness,  instability, 
=i>'d  mefh,..,.n,.^^  Kach  transfer  ,nust  b.  .arefully  considered 
^••that  It  n.ay  benefit  both  employ.T  and  emph.ve 

Promotions.        I>ron>otions  are  another  form  of  transfers 

•ar,l„,.„,ng  pron.otions    i,  one  of   ,h,.  p,i,„,  f„„,,i„„,  „f 

anv  .■mployment   bureau.      Recognition  of  abilitv  .saves  the 

;;;;';i;;'''>- ;-' ;-iv  th,M«xpen.se  ..f  in.p.^ 

Z  "  r  '"^^  "'  -'  -'i-"'^''"'!  •■■nploy..  a>  well.  i)u. 
'"•">  ".nployn.ent  oOiee  regularly  reviews  ,he  wage  rates 
-"     u.   all   cas..s   whi,.h    have   not    been   recent b    advancd 

r ':;; 'ti :"" ""-  ^-~'^  ^.n;,.  ^^z± 

^      .   .•^s^ltsof,he..ntraneetestsasabaHsforpromo- 
.    ;' ""f.;:''-''^.^-  •':■•'■-'-"■•••  f-.'M he  null  operatives 

ge  .  r  •',""•:  '"  ""'"'"  '"•"'-">■•""-■  U-neral  mtelli- 
M'-M,  .p,,u,  ^„j  accuracy.^     The  Western  Electri..  Com- 


74 


TFIK    HUMAN'    FACTOR    IX    IXDUSTRY 


pany  coiisidcis  ilie  next  tiiaii  in  line  in  cvciv  vacaiicy  l)ofore 
poiiig  outside  for  a  new  employe,  and  it  lias  liem  done  so  far 
with  success.-''  In  (lennany  ti")  pei-  cent  of  llie  men  in  tocli- 
nieal  and  managerial  positions  come  up  fr<pm  tlie  ranks  in 
the  foremost  imlustiies.'- 

The  effect  which  the  estahlislmieiil  of  tiie  cMiploymeiit 
bureau  has  had  on  the  provisions  made  for  transfei-  and  pro- 
motion is  indicated  in  t!ie  following  analysis  of  Mr.  ivellev's.^ 


Of  12  KinMB  withoct    |  Of  18  Firms  with 

Sep.\ratk  Kmhiciymknt  I     Skpmhtk  Kniploymknt 

DEI'AiiT.Mt.NIM  I)HI'\lir'.MKNTS 


1,  or    HM  {XT  t'eiit    t    7.  nr  Un.n  per  itiii      luul    definite    plans    for 

[)ri)iti()tii)ii 

2,  or  Iti.t)  per  <'ciit       l.{,  or  71'  J  per  ciiit      iiit'oriiicd     eiiiploNts     of 

i>|)portiiiiitics  for   ad- 

\  aiicc 
1.  or    «.:!  per  cent        H.  or  77  7  per  cent      had  w  rillcii  job  speciti- 

cat  ions 
5,  (»r  41.0  per  cent        1  t ,  or  77.7  |Mr  leiit      pro\idi(l     tor     transfers 
I  and  tr\-onls  in  other 

depart  rnents 
5.  or  41.t)  per  cj'nt         7.  or  .'IS  s  jht  rent       Lra\e    the    foreman    fnll 

power  of  disella^^;e 
4.  or  o.'M{  ]>er  cent        I.'),  or  s;i.:'>  per  ei^nl       invest  ifrated      easi's      of 

disidl.'irije 

4,  or  ;}:}.;{  i)er  eeid        liJ.  or  7-'.-' per  ceiu      ins  est  if,'ated  majority  of 
I  eases  of  ••  (piittint;  " 


Recommendations.  It  is  ,.nly  in  .a  matler  of  pincly 
persona!  concern  which  withdraws  the  work(f  fidin  tiio 
plant,  such  as  a  cliange  of  residence,  for  other  than  reasons 
of  inade((uate  housing  facilities  in  the  ngioii  'if  tic  pl.int, 
or  a  woin.an  employe's  nia,riage,  etc.,  that  llie  emi)lov- 
inent  hiucau  is  <  (unpletely  helpless.  But  when  an  employe 
is  leaving  volimlaiiK,  whether  for  hetti'r  opjiortimif ies 
than  can  Ik-  otTere(i  in  the  plant,  oi  for  pcisoiial  reasons, 
it  is  iuiportuut  that  lu   go  with  (lie  "  f'llK'st  gu(jd  will  "  of 


HIRIXO   AXD   HOLDING 


75 


the  company.  "  I'orhap.s,"  .says  Mr.  Williams,  of  the  New 
\ork  E<lis..n  Company,  "  tho  {rreatest  oncouraKPrnont  to 
faithful  scrvic,"  is  tju'  realization  that  it  will  ho  recognized 
oiitsulr  as  well  as  within  the  company."  The  employ- 
ment l.in-eau  nuist  he  ready  at  all  times  to  give  frank, 
"ou.teous  responses  to  (jueiies  of  references  for  former  em- 
ploye-:. 

Location    and    Arrangement   of   Employment    Office.— 

For  th(.  sake  of  eonvem-ence  the  employment  office  .-hould 
•h"  loeafcl  on  the  ground  floor.  .\de(iuate  and  comfortable 
quarters  should  he  provided.  Even  a  .small  department 
should  have  serwrate  waiting  and  interviewing  room.s 
In  large  plants  th(<re  is  often  a  preliminary  interview  room  as 
well  as  a  fmal  intc-rview  room.  .\ny  unavoidable  waiting 
pnio,l  b..f(,re  interviews  should  be  made  as  pleasant  as 
pnss.ble  for  the  applicants  i,y  the  provision  of  agreeable 
surn.undmgs  and  comfortabl,"  seats.  In  laving  out  the 
department  it  should  be  bou.e  in  mind  that  here  the  appli- 
cant revives  his  first  impressi.m  of  the  organization,  and 
the  fiist  impression  may  be  a  lasting  oih>. 

Handling  Applicants.  -  Two  metlKMis  of  handling  ap- 
plicants are  us.vl  :  a  doorman  gives  eonsecutive  numbers 
to  the  appluMnts  in  the  order  in  whi"h  thev  arrive  and  by 
which  th(>y  are  then  interviewed;  or  the  applicants  all  fall 
Hito  a  .single  file  leading  to  the  interview  room  " 

The  Record  of  Service.  -  PrenH,uisite  to  any  sv.stematic 
-I.'velupnient  of  an  eflieient  working  forc,>  is  the  preparation 
•>  t'l.Ml  records  of  employes  inclu.ling  all  data  relative  to 
their  history  before  and  .si,,,,.  e„t,.,i„fr  tfi,.  f,,,,,-,  ,.,„j,,,,^, 
Hirh  as  application  blanks,  ref,Mvne,.s,  nn-dical  an.l  mental 
examination  ivports,  effi,.iency  iv..-,!;;,  accidents  and  sug- 
gestions r,.,.o,-ds.  transf.r  and  promotion  slips,  etc.  Csually 
""■"■  >-  -par,-  p,-ovi,l..,l  on  the  covr  of  the  folder  in  which 
^^"r  I  dal:,  arc  filed  to  list,  in  ad-lition  to  the  emplove's  name 
*''"'  '"""''*■■••  ""•  'in)artnienl   m  which  he  works,"  the  posi- 


76 


THE    HUMAN    FACTOR   IN    INDUSTRY 


tion  hp  is  fillinc.  his  wae;p  rate,  tho  date  of  Wk  onp;a«!;('inont 
and  of  subsequent  transfers  or  promotions,  tho  date  of  his 
release  and  the  reasons  for  his  release.  The  Avery  Com- 
pany reproduces  on  the  eover  of  the  folder  the  application 
blank  and  utilizes  the  inside  of  the  folder  for  the  record  of 
the  entrance  medical  examination  report  of  the  employe, 
thus  preventing  the  possible  loss  of  the  two  most  important 
records.  To  such  a  file  the  employment  department  will 
resort  for  information  al)out  any  employe  recommended  for 
discharge,  transfer,  or  promotion. 

Employment  Records.  —  The  necessary  files  for  an  em- 
ployment office  will  include  :  "" 

1.  Application  blanks  of  future  employes. 

2.  Individual  records  of  pi-esent  employes. 

(a)  Past  history:  application  blank,  references,  medi- 
cal rating,  mental  rating. 

(6)   Transfers,  promotions,  changes  of  rate. 

(c)  Periodic  summary  of  individual's  j)ay  roll :  earn- 
ings (piecework),  bonuses,  latenesses,  absences. 

3.  Records    of    ex-employes :     individual    records,    leav- 

ing  slips,  with    reasons   for  leaving   and    other 
information  obtained. 

4.  Numerical  file:    cross  indi^x  for  badge  or  identifica- 

tion —  check  numbers. 

5.  Daily  blotter  of  men  hired  and  transferred  (for  com- 

piling monthly  rejxjrts). 

6.  Daily  blotter  of  men  removed  from  pay  roll. 


CHAPTER   IV 

EDUCATION' 

Need  for  Industrial  Education. —  "  Sovon  million 
workers  in  Anioricaii  nuimifuctiirinK  cslahli^hnionts  i)ro- 
<lucc"  about  one  tliir.l  of  thdr  i)otential  output  and  tliroc 
out  of  every  four  work,  rs  contribute  less  tluui  tli(>  averafje 
produetion  ,•  the  f.,ur,'  was  the  startlinjr  statement  of 
(  harles  T.  Clayton,  dir.vtor  of  the  United  States  Trainiufr 
Service  ni  the  Depart >ne.,t  of  Labor  at  Washinfrton.'  It 
has  been  indisputably  proved  that  this  is  in  la.fr,.  measure 
•Itie  to  the  lack  of  trainiiifi  of  industrial  workers,  a  laek 
whi.-h  has  existed  oily  si,,,.,,  th,'  bivakdown  of  the  old  ap- 
prentu'cship  system,  whieh  provid,.d  fr,.,H.,.al  t.aininfr  i„  all 
branches  of  the  t,-ade  as  well  as  the  n,.,.,.ssa,-v  background 
ot  Iheoi-etical  education. 

The  p,„blein  of  mod(  rn  educati(*n  has  b,>en  to  find  a  s„l,. 
stitute  for  this  .system.     At  pivsent  thcv  is  a  growing  ..eaiiza- 
'""  that  even  the  t.-chnical  and  trade  coll,.g,.s  and  schools 
.Mve  not   fully  ,net   the  situation  lK.,.ause  thongh  techni,.al 
knowledg<>  IS  supplie.l,  praeti.'al  exp-rit-nce  is  lacking.     Dcui 
Slnie.der  of  the  Uni%ersity  of  Cin,.n,na,i  has  t.-ied  to  com- 
bme  the  theoivtical  training  with  th,.  p,-a,tical  work  in  the 
(  oll,.ge  of  I-ng,n,.,.,.i„f,  at   Cin,.i„nati.     The  present   .nov(  ■ 
'"ent     o,  vo,.ational   (.-aining  i„  p„i,ii,  ..am'a'um  c,.npl,>d 
witli  th.  pa,1-tin„.  s,.h,.ol  .system  is  an  atten.pt  to  give  t<. 
.e  mass  of  workers  son,,-  of  the  b,.n,.fits  of  the  apprentice- 
up  systoni  by  htt.ng  them  for   an.l  placing  them    in  the 
P'oper  industrial  niche. 

Public  Provision. -Before  the  war,  Germany,  alone  of 
'"'  "'^tions,  ha.l  a  wid,-spread   system  of    nnblic  industrial 

77 


MICROCOPY    RESOLUTION    TEST    CHART 

ANSI  ond  ISO  TEST  CHART  No    2 


1.0 


I.I 


1.25 


IS 


■  2.8 

3  2 

■  36 


1.4 


III  2.5 
III  2.2 

12.0 
1.8 

1.6 


^      APPLIED  IIVMGE     Inc 


Ma--     MrW 
'ie*    Tjfh 

0300  -  Bt. 
%«««  -  fa 


78 


THK    Iir    lAX    FACTOR    fX    INDUSTRY 


cdiu'iitioii.  Tlicic  ('iiil'li(-n  1  t\\v-rn  iho  aj;(>s  of  M  and  18 
wciT  coiupcllcil  t(i  attcuid  wade  continuation  schools  for 
oijilit  or  ti'n  hours  {>ach  week  (hn'in<j;  woriv  liours.-'  Tho  ro- 
suhs  ohtaincd  ^avc  ini{)etus  to  tiic  movement  for  voca- 
tional fducation  in  otlua-  industrial  countrit's  and  moved 
both  i^rivate  and  public  afreiicies  to  a  renewed  attack  on  the 
proMcius  involved.  In  Entiland  the  new  Education  Bill 
ri'(|uii(s  cliil(hcn  employed  in  non-essential  occupations  to 
attt'iid  vocal  ic.nal  schools  until  they  aic  Id  years  of  af^e. 
In  otlicr  word-,  the  law  aims  to  iz)\v  each  individual 
a  mental  liiick-jround  am!  ti'aininu;  in  tiie  arts  and  crafts 
befoi'e  allowing  him  to  take  up  a  distinct  vocation.  After 
M  ye;ii'-  of  iiire  the  chiM  m;iy  become  a  waj^e  earner,  but 
until  ciiihii'cn  inust  attend  contiimation  schools  for  three 
iiundicd  and  tv.cnty  hours  a  year.''  In  these,  the  studies 
ar(^  directly  coimcctcil  with  the  industrial  occupation. 
Ill  the  I'liiled  States  the  I'echaal  Covermiient  sul)sidizes 
tra<ic,  p;iit-tim(>  and  coiit  inu;it  ion  schooN  in  the  separate 
States.  Thi<  ha-^  c.iused  ;i  "jreal  iiicre,i^(>  of  putilic  activ- 
ities in  tlii<  coimectioii,  whctlua'  ind{>|)endent  or  in  con- 
junction with  iiidu  try.  Rut  to  till  e.\i>timr  ^.ips  and  to 
fiive  speciali;ci'd  li;diiin^,  many  industrial  organi/ations  have 
found  it  necessary  .and  of  v.duc  to  develop  traininjf  facili- 
tii'-  in  their  own  phmts.  denei'.il  voc;ilional  and  indus- 
tri.d  educ.itioii  ,as  well  a-^  general  elementary  educ.ition  in 
indu-try  is  ;i  held  whn-:c  limits  are  continually  decreasing. 

Employers'  Provision  for  Elementary  Education  Un- 
necessary. \Ii!m;ii<!.Ii  it  is  imposvj!,!,.  to  st.ite  how  far 
piililic  ju'cneie-  will  ;i-  uiiie  the  full  res|)onsiiiility  for  voca- 
tional .Mid  iliihisj  ii:il  ediicitioil,  the  tendency  is  fdp  jt  fo  1)(. 
<  iken  nut  of  priv.ite  h.iiids,  The  t'cderal  Revemie  Law 
m.ikes  the  empldvmeiit  of  children  under  fourteen  years  of 
age  impMs^ibl,..  In  .i  mmibei'  of  the  Siilc^  the  witlidrawal 
ot  cliildicii  liotii  wMMic-earaing  oci'up.'itions  nnd  their  reten- 
Imn    in   s(  hool    is  enhirced   by   legislation,    thus   eliminating 


EDUCATION 


79 


tho  need  for  provision  of  olcMnontary  cduoation  on  the  part  of 
employers  and  placing  the  responsii.ilitv  to  an  increa^in- 
oxtcMit  on  pul.hi-  officials.  In  those  few  States  which  are 
backward  ui  educational  development,  eniplovers  may  feel 
that  It  IS  to  tlieir  advanta-e  to  maintain  schools  for  future 
employcs,  as  does  th<'  IVlzer  ManufactMrin-  T'ompanv  in 
South  Carolina,  whicli  supports  a  school  for  seven  hundred 
children.'  Rut  in  general,  it  is  inadvisai)le  and  unnecessary 
tor  (Muployers  to  organize  elementarv  education  clashes 
unless  to  supplement  the  work  of  the  puhlic  schools  in  the 
Americanization  of  foreigners. 

Industry's  Part  in  Industrial  Education.  —On  the  other 
•';'"«1,  no  matter  how  e.xtensive  may  he  the  vocational  work 
tloiie  hy  puhlic  agencies,  industry  will  alwavs  plav  a  larg<' 
J)art  in  selecting  and  training  efficient  workers.  \i  is  not 
possihl,.  to  rely  .sol(.ly  on  the  market  (,r  on  the  pul)lic  school 
for  skilled  workmen.  In  the  first  j.I.m'c,  th.-  su|)ply  is  in- 
sufficient, and  se.-(mdly.  processes  ;,nd  .on.liti.ms  "of  pro- 
''"-■*""'  ;"••'  peculiar  to  ea<h  pl.mt.  Again,  in  the  final 
:>iialysi.s,  technical  skill  and  even  vocational  selection  can 
only  he  secaired  in  the  factorv  workshop.  Th(>  school  shop 
<'.'t'Hi'>t  reproduce  i„  mimite  detail  the  machinerv  and  con- 
•litK.ns  of  commercial  i)ro<luction.  The  pupil  niust  he  put 
to  work  in  a  real  shop,  on  a  real  joh,  hefore  his  fitness  for 
any  given  kind  of  work  can  he  determin<M|.  and  this  !ry-out 
process  may  h.ave  to  he  continued  for  a  considerahle"  tin:.' 
■'"d  m  a  numher  of  oeeup.ations  hefore  the  pupil's  industrial 
"iche  IS  found.  Thi>  .Iocs  not  mean  that  the  trade  school, 
|«re-vocational  classes  .and  psyehologi-'.d  exannnation  have 
•>"  role  t(.  play   in   industrial   placement.     Tli,.ir  role  is  to 

'liM'over  native  inlelligei .and  tendencies.  !„,(    (I,,.  pu,)irs 

fm.ai  efficieney  .lepends  s(.  much  o„  U\<  in<!ividual  lemi)era- 
inent  and  on  his  reaction  t<.  Ins  .auin.rnnem  that  it  i<  in,, 
pnssihie  to  rely  on  make-helieve  shopwork  or  on  anv  short 
P"l"-">,aiy  test   for  a  just  or  complete  estimate  of  ahilitv 


80 


TUE    HUMAX    FA(^T()I{    IX    IXDrSTHV 


Moreover,  n-  Dean  ScIiiieid.cM-  points  011I ,  the  yoiin<i;  worker 
is  in  :i  proe(>>s  of  development,  and  wliat  he  likes  and  does 
well  at  sixteen  lie  may  heartily  dislike  ai'd  do  ill  at  the  atie  of 
twenty. '  Heeause  of  these  considerations,  employers,  in  their 
attempt  to  (it  the  jol>  to  the  man  and  the  man  to  the  job, 
are  hejiinning  to  try  out  new  en"plo3-es  on  various  operations 
in  the  shop  or  in  a  special  workroo.n  in  the  factory  or  Inisi- 
ness  house,  before  jilacing  them  permanently.  Pu})lic  voca- 
tional schools  are  asking  employers  to  take  their  pupils  for 
part-time  employnu^nt,  so  that  the  pupil  may  experience 
liis  trade  under  "ctual  conditions,  while  learning  certain 
operations  and  acquiring  the  theoretical  knowledge  in  the 
schoolroom. 

Technical  Training  Only  One  Part  of  the  Problem.  — 
In  addition  to  preparatory  training  it  devolves  upon  each 
industry  to  keep  its  employes  mentally  alive.  The  prob- 
lem of  individual  education  to-day  is  twofold.  It  is  neces- 
sary not  oidy  to  find  and  train  the  skillful  workman,  but 
also  to  compensate  the  great  numlxT  of  machine^  operatives 
U)r  the  monotony  of  their  work.  If  a  man's  body  is  "  ina- 
chinized  "  for  tlu"  greater  part   of  the  day,   his  mind  must 


V()(  ATIOVAl,   Tl{.MNI\(i 

Breakdown    of   Apprenticeship    System.  —  The   (lev(>lop- 
ment    of    workers    with    the    i)asic    knowleil^e   of    an    entire 


EDUCATIOM 


81 


industry  has  boon  tho  problem  of  our  technical  schools  and 
universities.     Tlie   percentage   of   coljep;,.   nr;,<hia(es   in    tho 
p(.pulation   is  still,   however,   n(>-rliui!)le.     To   lill   the   i-eed, 
trade  schools  under  both  public  and  private  au-^pices  have 
been  d.'celoped,  and  nic'c  recently,  tra<le  training-  has  been 
extended  to  the  lower  grade  of  pul)lic  schools.      Tnion  labor 
has   entered   the   field   of   training   by   the   develoi)inent    of 
courses  such  as  those  given  by  the  International  Typographi- 
cal I'nion.     .Ml  of  these  attempts  hav,'  been  to  replace  what 
was  probably  the  mo-;t  valuable  phas(>  of  the  lost  apprentice- 
ship system  — effective,   trained,   and   interested   workmen. 
The  difficulty  with  all   thes,.  new  plans  has  !i<mh   th(>  eni- 
piiasis    on    tiieordicid    training    and    I  lie    lack    of    adeciuato 
compensating  practical  (experience.     This  led   Dean  Schnei- 
d(a-    to    introduce    the  co(,p,.rat  ive  cours(>  into   the    ( 'oll(>fre 
of  Ijigineering  of  the  I'nivei'^ity  (,f  Cincinnati,   which  pro- 
vided alternation  |)eriods  of  work  in  commerci.d  shops  with 
(■lasswork  in  the  college.     The  men  ar(>  paired  so  that   the 
same  place  is  filled  f(,r  two  weeks  by  \hr  one  man  and  the 
next    two  weeks  by  his  partner.      Over  one  hundred  manu- 
facturers ;ire  coop(a-aling  wilh   the   ("niversily   in   all   kinds 
of  industries  by  employing  the<e  -students  and  paying  them 
regular  w.ages  for  lime  spent  in  th(>  shop.'' 

Part-time  Schools.  Other  engineering  coihges  havo 
followed  this  exprrimenl.  A  pirt-tinie  system  is  being 
successfully  applied  in  the  High  School  in  Fitclib,  rg,  Mass 
S.-lvay.  X.  v.,  York.  Pa.,  an.l  X.w  York  < 'ily."'  Paired' 
I'upils  attcMid  >chool  or  go  lo  work  :dternate  weeks  or  fort- 
"ight-,.  ■' Coordinatoiv  "  vi^t  the  f:iet,„ie^  or  commercial 
ll-mscs  to  see  lliat  the  work  give-i  the  i)upil>  properly  fills  out 
the  scho,,l  i)rogram  and  provid.'^  tlie  neede.l  experi.-iice.' 
In  New  York  Citv  in  .bin.'.  P.MS,  there  were  six  hutidre.l 
lugh-.'-chool  pnpih  ,in  p.n-t  time.'* 

Benefits    of    Part  time    System.       The    actu.d    benefits 
liuin  such  training  are  intangible,  though  real  both  to  manu- 


S2 


TUK    lU'MAX    FACTOIt    IX    INDUSTRY 


facturcf  ;inil  pupil.  'Tlic  (Miiploycr  Kuiiis  ;i  conpcration  with 
the  --('Ikk)],  ;iii(1  assistance  in  trainiau;  a  coiitinuoiis  supply 
of  youufi  workers  who  have  wider  experience  and  are  better 
fitted  ior  their  worii  tliaii  th(>  ordinary  new  employes.  The 
eniplnye,  on  liie  oilier  liand,  achieves  actual  exjHM'ience 
in  dilTei'eiit  type<  of  woi'k  coupled  witii  careful  training, 
and  is  thus  enal)le(|  to  make  a  real  s(-lection  of  his  vocation. 
The  couuHon  ohjection  in;tde  before  liym^  the  systi'in  that 
th(>  alternation  of  woikers  is  ilifUcult  to  arraiiLK'  and  se- 
riously affects  pi'oi'uction  has  proved  jj;roundless  by  ex- 
peritmce.  The  initial  hostility  of  fore;uen  soon  disappcvirs. 
In  the  thii-(l  ye.ai'  of  the-  part-timi"  scliools  in  New  York 
City  the  \Vashin^:;ton  Ti'vin^  IIi;j;h  School  r<'ceived  retiuests 
from  manufact  urei>  for  at  least  two  hundred  i:ii-ls,  about 
twice  as  many  as  the  school  could  supply."^  The  Metropoli- 
tan Life  Insurance  ("omi).iny  foiuid  ihe  i);'rt-time  system 
a  m(>ans  of  findin.t>;  edicieiit  workers  foi-  futui'c  permanent 
('mi)loynienl .  In  lOb").  tiie  Statistical  Bureau  needed  some 
extra  clerical  workers.  Six  j^irls  to  fill  three  positions  for 
alternatinj!;  weeks  wer(>  fuiiiished  by  the  Julia  Hichman 
lUf2,h  School.  Pains  weie  t.aken  to  explain  to  the  fiirls  the 
meaning  of  the  woi'k  they  were  doinu  while  with  the  com- 
pany in  order  that  it  mijiht  be  of  real  ('(hicational  value  to 
thi'm  The  ^ii!s  i;;ive  weekly  reports  of  their  work  in  their 
classes  at  the  school.  Three  (if  the  uirls  liecame  the  burcniu's 
most  eflicicnt  |)ermanent  woi'kers. 

Part-time  School  of  National  Cash  Register  Company. 
—  Tlie  Xation.al  ('ash  lirui-ter  ('omp;iny  lias  adopted 
the  p.MCI-t  iiiie  .-'liool  more  roiiipli'ti'ly  perhaps  tlrin  any  othei' 
iiiilie  indu.-tiy.  .\|)|)rr[it  ice<  in  all  'i'ad<'s  iire  tr.iiiicd  on  the 
p.irt-timc  -ystem,  li'>l  in  llir  liiiili  schools  .ind  then  in  the 
I'liix'ersily  of  < 'incinniti.  Applications  foi-  aiiprenticcship 
.•i!e  iil'd  in  file  "Student's  -:|.|.()nd  year  of  liii^h  school.  The 
following  smnmer  the  boy  i<  liiven  miployment ,  and  if  he 
gives   promisi'   is   then   indentured   lor  four  years  and  sent 


EDUCATION 


83 


back  to  the  high  school  for  (wo  y(>;ir.s  part-time  work.     He 
is  paid  only  for  the  tiin(>  spent  in  tlie  factory.     A  credit  is 
given  hini  in  the  school  and  in  (lie  factory  for  two  years' 
apprenticeship.     After  graduation,  if  the  l)oy  should  wish 
to  hecduie  an  engineer  and  his  work  warrants  it,  he  may 
he  admitted   to  the  cooperative  course  at  the   University. 
He  finances   himself,  hut  special   rates   are   made   for  liim. 
In   1914  the  four-year  cours(>,    excluding   hoard,    was   esti- 
mated  as  costing  §415.     Two  weeks  are  spent   alternately 
at  the  factory  and  at  tlic  college,  and  the  hoy  is  i)aid  regular 
journeyman's  wages  while  at   the  factory.     If  he  does  not 
wish  to  go  to  the  University  he  finislies  his  aijprenticeship 
term  at  the  factory  and  attends  a  contimiation  school  two 
half  days  a  week  for  two  years.     For  this  t  ime  sjxMit  in  school 
he  is  paid  in  full.^     An  adaptation  of  the  part-time  school 
is   the  cooperative  educational   scheme   in    use   in    Chicago 
.•Hid    Mimieapolis,    whereby    bricklayers    and    those    in    the 
hinlding  trades  are  given   instruction  in  the  |)ul)lie  schools 
in  the  theory  and  Jeclini(iue  of  (heir  trades  during  the  slack 
winter  months  of  .January  and  T'ebruary.'" 

Technical  Night  Schools.  —  The  need  of  industrial  workers 
U)  enlarge  their  technical  knowledge  in  order  to  i)ut   them- 
selves in   line  for  i)romoti(in  has  led   to  llie  wide  devdop- 
iiK'nt   of  the  technical  night  school,  in  spite  of  the  serious 
olijection   that    unl(>ss   working   hours   are   unusually   >liort, 
tiie  work  exceptionally  light  or  the  school  woik  of  a  recrea- 
tional char.tcter,  th(;   worker  has  not  the  piiysical  stamina 
to  sei'ure  an   adeiiuate   return   foi'   the   lime  spent.      Publi<' 
educational    autlioiities,    employers,    and    pri\a(e    agencies 
liive  organized  such  night   si'liools.     The   Murray   Hill   live- 
iium  High  School  ill  \ew  "k'ork  City  and  the  Trade  School  in 
N'i  wtoii,   Mass.,   arc  notable  examples  of  complete  <'ourses 
'■""ducted    by    public    education."     To    meet    the    criticism 
"I  ciiiplnyes  that    the  pu!)Iic  nighl-school  cornse^  have  not 
"Hi  ihe  demands  of  irnlustiy.  the  so-called  >liort  umt  courses 


84 


THE    HUMAN    FAfTOR    IX    IXDUSTRY 


wow  fonmil.'ilcil,  ;ui(l  althoujili  they  have  not  as  yet  been 
widely  iiititxhuuMl  into  the  puliHc  eveiiiiiji  classes,  they 
represent  a  new  developniiMit  wortii  mentioning  here. 
The  i)lan  Tor  this  system  involves  the  formation  into  joint 
advisory  l)oards  of  employers  and  workmen  skilled  in  the 
trade.  The  courses  themselves  are  organized  to  serve  the 
specific  needs  of  a  particular  group,  in  a  limitcMJ  number  of 
lessons  based  on  material  found  to  i)e  of  piact  ical  value.'- 

Cooperation  of  Employer  and  Public  Night  School.  — 
The  cot'iperation  of  the  Green  Ray  (Wisconsin)  Board  of 
Industrial  Education  with  the  Oneida  Motor  Truck  Com- 
pany is  interesting.  .\n  evening  school  for  teaching  various 
trades  is  held  in  tlie  plant.  The  company  provides  the 
equipment,  heat,  liglit,  and  power.  Each  applicant  for 
admission  to  a  course  is  tlrsf  tried  out  in  th(>  department 
in  which  lie  prefers  employment.  If  he  promises  success 
in  tliis  department  he  ent<>rs  the  evening  >chool.  The  edu- 
cational autlioiities  employ  the  foremen  of  tlie  company  as 
teachers.  On  the  compl(>tion  of  the  course  a  certificate 
assures  the  pni'i!  permanent  employment  in  the  factory. 
This  same  |)lan  is  being  introduced  in  oilier  cities  of  the 
state."  ('(xiperation  of  this  kind  between  tin-  employer 
and  the  rtuard  of  l-Mucation  is  undoubtedly  helpful. 

Employes'  N-ght  Schools.  —  The  Casino  Ti'chnical  Night 
School  in  lOast  Pittsburgh  was  on(>  of  the  largest  night 
schools  supporteil  by  employei's.  It  was  originally  founded 
by  tlie  Westinghouse  l^lcctric  and  Manufacturing  < 'om- 
pany,  though  the  Iiasisof  support  has  be(>n  giadually  changed 
with  the  inci'casc  in  tlie  number  uf  pupils  and  the  o|)ening 
oi  its  doors  to  emi)loyes  of  (il  her  companies.  Now  th(>  pupil 
is  charged  a  small  fee  and  eight  school  (list rii'ts  a.ssist  witli 
yearly  appropriations  apportioned  to  the  number  of  puj)ils 
registered.  I'roin  one  hundred  pupils  in  !'.H)t  the  num- 
ber has  inciciscd  to  eleven  hundreil  in  I<)17.  The  main 
couise  consists  of  the  fuiidaiiu'iital  principles  of  engineering, 


EDUCATION 


85 


and  covers  a  four-year  pori(„l."  Tho  Illinois  Steel  Company 
and  the  Gary  Works  of  tlie  Vmu.l  States  Steel  Corporation 
liave  also  made  a  s^pecial  point  of  evenin-  dasscs  in  technical 
subject,  pertaining  to  steel  niaking.  These  courses  are  free 
to  all  employes.'' 

Y.  M.  C.  A.  Courses.  -  The  Y.  M.  C.  A.  has  the  most 
extensive  night  school  program  of  industrial  education  of 
any  social  organization.  In  many  cities  definite  trade 
instruction  for  apprentices  is  given,"  iho  aim  being  to  co- 
operate with  the  industries  of  the  community  by  giving 
courses  which  will  cover  the  entiie  industrial  field. 

Trainint,  withix  the  Ixdustuy 

Need  for  Training  for  the  Job.  -  The  great  value  de- 
rive.!  from  preliminary  systematic  training  for  new  workers 
before   they  assume  a  regular   position   in   industry  is  fast 
being  appreciated.     President  Edward  Smith  of  the  Ameri- 
can Manufacturers  Export  Association  has  stated  that  in 
on(>  factory  of  8000  employes  where  such  training  had  been 
introduced  the  labor  turnover  had  been  reduced  15  per  cent. 
The  results  clahned  after  the  introduction  of  .scientific  train- 
nig  of  new  employes  i,y  two  hundred  firms  weiv  a  decrease 
I"  l:ilH)r  tun-over  and  in  spoiled  work,  a  i'.wer  accident  rate 
a  rising  standard  of  (>n"ici(>ncy  of  the  wag.>  earners,  and  in 
genenil    better  understanding   between    labor   and   capital 
Mo.vover.  it  was  staled  that  the  training  departments  are 
sHt-suppordng,  as  the  expense  of  the  training  is  off.set    by 
til''  value  of  the  learner's  work,  in  fact,  in  many  cases  that 
<iuy  yield  a  n'turn  instead  of  a  loss.i 

Apprenticeship  Schools.  \\ith  the  gra<lual  elimination 
"f  tile  skilled  worker  from  industry,  the  substitution  of  the 
'"•I'lnne  apprenticeship  as  the  method  of  learning  a  trade 
•'■1^  largely  dis.appean^d.  Personal  iiistnictioii  of  a  new 
'I'liid   iiy  a  foreman  or  by  ;in  old   ennjlove   li.'-s.  h..'!--..!-^  ^ 


86 


TUE    HUMAN    FA("r()li    IX    INDUSTRY 


haphazard  process.  Tlic  uninitiatcMl  oporativo  is  commonly 
loft  to  teach  himself  how  to  fill  his  new  job.  Tli(>  conse- 
(jueiit  dearth  of  skilled  all-around  workers,  especially  in  the 
maciiine  trades,  has  UhI  to  the  introduction  of  th(>.  corpora- 
tion-owned and  controlled  apprenticeship  school;  but  re- 
cently even  in  the  less  skilled  occupations  jireparatory 
training  for  the  job  has  been  tried  and  found  of  great  value. 
As  a  result  we  hnd  specific  provision  for  the  training  of 
workeis  in  all  kinds  (jf  occupations,  ranging  from  the  most 
simple  to  the  most  complex  in  the  demands  that  they  make 
on  technical  proficiency. 

Early  Schools.  —  .Vs  early  as  1805  the  Lake  Shore  and 
INIichigan  Railway  had  its  apprenticeship  school.'*'  The  gen- 
eral revival  of  th(>  apprenticeship  contract  ami  apprentice- 
ship method  is  more  recent.  Since  1909  the  West  Lynn  works 
of  the  C'lcneral  Electric  Company  has  taken  boys  from  fifteen 
to  nineteen  years  of  age  who  have  completed  the  grammar 
grades  and  ar(>  physically  sound,  and  tried  them  out  for  two 
inonths  in  the  shop.  If  adapted  they  are  then  indentured 
for  three  years  if  molders,  or  for  four  years  if  machinists, 
tool  makers,  ^r  pattern  makers,  and  taught  the  funda- 
mentals of  the  trade  in  a  special  training  room  for  from  one 
and  one  half  to  two  and  one  half  years.  Regular  wages 
ar(>  i>aid  and  at  the  end  of  the  apprenticeship  term  a  cash 
bomis  is  awarded.''  The  Curtis  Publishing  Company 
has  an  ai)prentice  school  for  compositors,  directed  by  the 
itianager  of  its  composition  division.  The  course  takes 
five  years  an<l  the  wage  i)aid  the  boys  is  incn^ised  every 
six  months  during  apprenticeshi]).'^  The  Packard  Motor 
Car  Company  <if  Detroit,  Mich.,  reiiuin^s  that  a  boy 
must  pass  a  physical  examination,  have  completed  the 
eighth  grade  and  be  at  least  sixteen  years  old  before  ho  may 
enter  their  ap|)rentic(>ship  school.  Further,  his  parents 
pay  a  cash  deposit  of  S'io.OO  and  sign  his  ind(>n^ure  papers 
in  the  nivsence  of  a  notaiy  to  impress  upon  the  boy's  mind 


EDUCATION 


87 


the  seriousness  of  the  contract.  A  bonus  of  SlOO  phis  the 
S25.00  is  paid  him  on  the  completion  of  the  two  and  a  half 
years'  course.'^ 

RaUroad  Apprenticeship  Schools.  —  Th(>  most  general 
development  has  been  by  the  railroads.  Manv,  inclu^ling 
the  New  York  Central,  the  Pennsylvania,  an<l  tlie  Southrm 
Pacitic,  have  introduced  apprenticeship  schools  as  ncces.sary 
factors  in  maintaining  the  standards  of  railroad  woi'k.  The 
Santa  Fe  Apprentice  School  of  the  Atchison,  Topeka,  and 
Santa  Fe  Railroad  was  established  in  1907  to  meet  the  in- 
creased demand  for  mechanics.  The  paym(>nt  of  a  bonus 
of  ^.?7.5.00  upon  the  completion  of  the  course  and  another 
$7.').00  to  graduates  in  the  service  .si.x  moiUhs  later,  is  to 
encourage  the  apprenti.'cs  to  stav  in  the  emplov  'of  the 
company.  It  was  stated  in  19Ui  that  for  two  veans  in  spite 
of  a  gr(>atly  increased  demand,  the  supplv  of  mechanics 
from  the  apprenticeship  course  had  met  all  the  demands  of 
the  business."'' 

Cooperation  of  PubUc  School  with  Apprenticeship  Course. 

—  Th(>  School  of  Chicago  (Illinois)  Lakeside  Press  makes 
agreements  with  the  parents  of  granunar  school  graduates 
between  fourteen  and  sixteen  years  of  age  by  which  the  bov 
IS  bound  for  a  two  years'  pre-apprenticeship  course.  During 
this  period  half  the  time  is  spent  in  the  school  and  half  in 
the  shop.  Then,  should  the  boy  prove  satisfactorv.  his  serv- 
ices are  contracted  for,  for  fiv<>  additional  vears.^^'  '  The  Fore 
RiverShipl>uilding  Company  of  Quincy,  Mass.,  has  developed 
Its  apprenticeship  system  in  co(iper;it ion  with  the  part-time 
school  m  Quincy.  The  boys  are  p;,ired  ofT  and  spen.l  alter- 
nate w..,.ks  in  scho,,l  ..uul  in  the  shop.  To  meet  the  needs 
"t  the  boys  who  cann,>t  afford  to  attend  ihis  p;irt-time  ar- 
-angcment  the  company  itself  has  organized  a  s.lionl  for 
"Pl"''"tie..s  for  two  (Lays  a  week,  wh.a'e  students  aiv  paid 
;  unntr  mstructi..,,.     After  a  six-months  ,,nn  of  probation, 

11    the   student    in    ..iflw.r   ,.,.,. ..c-..    ; *;   i-      .    . 

■  ■■-    -    1      --aii.-i.uiL/i_y,    a    lOUr-v  fill 


88 


THE    HUMAN    FACTOR    IN    INDUSTRY 


appronticoship  agroomrnt  is  sipjnod.  Tho  rate  of  pay  in- 
creases each  year,  from  nine  cents  an  hour  at  the  l^eginning  to 
sixteen  and  seven  eighths  cents  (hiring  the  fourth  year  with 
a  bonus  of  6100  awanled  at  graduation.-  The  fact  that  so 
many  companies  liave  intro(hiced  and  maintained  apprentice- 
ship courses  is  proof  in  itself  tliat  tliey  have  l)een  a  success. 

Vestibule  Schools.  —  The  war  has,  moreover,  taught  us 
the  value  of  training  in  other  than  highly  skilled  occupa- 
tions. In  1017  the  Recording  and  Computing  Company  of 
Dayton,  Ohio,  introduced  a  "  vestibule  "  school,  a  separate 
training  department,  ecjuipped  with  the  various  kinds  of 
machinery  hi  use  in  the  plant.  In  this  department  women 
war  workers  inducted  into  the  plant  w<'re  given  from  three  to 
ten  days'  instruction  in  methods  of  work  before  being  put 
on  the  floor.  The  women  teachers  selected  from  the  shop 
were  not  given  more  than  thirty  pupils  each.  The  new  opera- 
tive was  taught  only  one  job,  but  the  training  was  thorough. 
The  new  girl  was  paid  twenty  cents  an  hour  during  instruction. 
In  time  the  old  employes  were  also  given  this  instruction. 
As  a  result  v,ne  set  of  thirty-one  emi)loyes  changed  its  rate 
of  production  from  eight  pieces  per  hour  in  January,  1916, 
to  fiftj'-five  pieces  per  hour  in  1018.  In  the  assembly 
department  2000  girls  produced  38,000  complete  fuses  per 
day  in  one  shift,  although  expert  engineers  had  esthuated 
15,000  fuses  in  two  shifts  as  a  possible  output.^^ 

In  a  woodwork  and  paneling  factory  the  course  for  train- 
ing is  from  two  to  six  days  and  the  rate  of  pay  during  this 
time  is  twenty-five  cents  an  hour  for  l)oth  men  and  women. 
The  standard  of  production  of  this  department  is  even  higher 
than  that  of  the  regular  shop.^^  The  Packard  Motor  Car 
Company  kept  individual  records  of  each  "  learner's  "  prog- 
ress, not  only  in  th.e  training  dcpailment  but  iji  the  shop  as 
well,  and  a  sp(M'i,t1  (>ITort  was  made,  especially  in  the  cas(>  of 
women,  to  try  them  out  on  dilferent  types  of  machines  until 

iliC    (JLCiipaTivjii     DCat    iUiteu    TO     ihu     iilUUlUUU.1     WUS    iuUUU. 


•A- 


KDUCATION  89 

This  ronipany  justified  t  he  cxpcmr^uro,  estimated  at  $52.21 
for  training!;  each  person  for  a  month,  on  the  grounds  of  in- 
creased cfHcieney  of  the  woikers  and  subsequent  better 
and  greater  prochiction.-'^ 

Qualifications  of  Instructors.  —  It  has  proved  so  difficult 
to  secure  the  right  (Hrector  for  these  training  schools  that 
the  qualifications  fc  the  job  have  been  analyzed  and  classi- 
fied as  follows  :^^ 

,  Peh  Cent 

I  radc  experience 25 

Tecliniciil  ahility 20 

Technical  knowledge 15 

Ahility  to  analyze  and  plan 15 

Leadership |r 

Personality jq 

100 

The  Emergency  Fleet  Corporation,  to  meet  this  difficulty 
tliu-ing  the  war,  gave  a  six  weeks'  course  at  the  Instructor's 
Training  Center  in  Newport  News  to  skilled  craftsmen 
selected  from  shipyards  all  over  the  country,  to  enable  these 
men  to  go  back  to  their  shipyards  eciuipped  to  instruct  new 
and  old  workmen  in  the  shipbuilding  trades.  The  shipyards 
paid  the  men's  wages  during  the  course  and  all  expenses.  The 
Emergency  Fleet  Corporation  followed  up  the  training  and 
paid  a  bonus  to  all  workmen  under  instruction,  provided 
tli(y  remaine<l  with  th(>  shipyards  seventy-eight  days." 

Other  Vestibule  Schools.  -  Many  oth(>r  war  hidustries 
liad  the  same  experience.  The  Curtis  Aeroplane  Corpora- 
tion (,f  Buffalo,  the  Nordyke  and  :Marmon  Company  of 
Indianapolis,  the  Lincoln  Motor  Company  of  Detroit  and 
the  Sen(>ca  Falls  Manufacturing  Companv  were  among 
those  who  adopted  these  "  vestibule  "  schools  which  the 
Sccti.m  on  IiKlustrial  Training  of  the  Council  of  National 
Defense  luged  upon  all  employers  in  war  industries."  These 
war  l(>ssons  can  be  ai.plied  to  peac(«  activities,  as  well.  In- 
troduction ot  such  training  is  po.ssible  in  many  plants. 


90 


THE    HUMAN    FACTOR    IX    INDUSTRY 


General  Training  Classes.  —  Botwccii  th^  prnlonsed  and 
olal>nr;it('  apprciilicoyhip  courses  and  iheso  "vestibule" 
schools,  witli  (heir  traiuiiifi  of  three  to  six  d:\\A,  lie  tiie  ef- 
forts of  many  cominercial,  pnhlisbing,  and  manufacturiiip; 
hou>cs  to  train  their  employes  for  a  period  of  a  few  weeks 
or  niontiis,  pi('i)arat(iry  to  rep;ular  employment.  The 
Northwestern  Knittinji  Mills  of  Minneai)olis  f;ives  a  three 
nioiilhs'  course  to  cutters  before  allowing  them  to  tlo  pro- 
ductive work.'"  Telephone  companies  connnonly  j^ive 
field  workers  a  foui'  weeks'  course  of  switchbo;  rd  lessons, 
li'cturcs  on  the  theoretical  side  of  their  work,  on  safety 
prorcdui'e.  iiu  the  adiniiiisir.at  ion  of  the  business,  etc., 
and  diviiie  the  course  into  three  grades  with  intervening 
field  W(.'rk.-''  Mvcry  new  employe  of  the  Xew  York  Edison 
("onii)aiiy  enters  a  Iraiuwi^  class  in  which  lu-  not  only  learns 
the  tcchni(iue  of  his  job  but  in  wi.ich  his  jjcrsonality  i^j 
studied,  and  a  close  record  of  achievement  kept.'-'  The 
Dennison     Manufaclui  Company    do<'s     likewise,     and 

(lurinf:  this  time  makes  a  careful  study  of  th(>  new  employe's 
vocational  attitudes.  lie  is  not  allowed  to  enter  a  refjular 
depaitment  until  he  is  al)le  to  earn  a  specified  wa^e.'"'  Such 
a  procedure  relieves  the  foreman  of  the  responsibility  of 
traininu,  protects  the  employe  from  the  unnecessary  strain 
which  accompanies  the  learning  of  a  new  joii  without  ade- 
(piate  super\ision,  and  assmcs  (he  employer  of  a  i)roductive 
worker  when  the  employe  finallv  enter'^  a  d(>partment. 

Salesmanship  Schools.  In  this  conneetion  special  train- 
ing scho<ils  for  "-.de^nien  dc'^eive  mention.  The  Hi 
Adding',  Maeliiiie  ( 'ompaiiy  has  .i  school  foi 
jit  it-;  liostoii  ofliee.  A  six  Weeks'  course 
of  s:ilcsm:inshi|),  compii-inii  foui"  houis'  class  work  in  the 
morning!:  and  three  hours  oj  home  work  foi'  the  afternoon,  is 
ft)ilowcd  by  from  four  (o  six  weeks  of  piai'tical  lield  W(jrk. 
Candidates  conipletini:  this  tiaininp:  successfully  are  eligible 
foi    positions   as   salesmen    for    the   company.     Applicants 


H'rows 
salesmanship 
in   the   theorv 


EDUCATION 


91 


are  chosen  from  among  ttioso  who  ;uis\vor  a  c'lrofully  worded 
advertisement  describing  the  purpose  of  the  course  and  tlic 
type  of  person  dcsin'(l,  Tli(»  answer  sent  hy  tiie  company 
to  *hese  written  ai)plications  explains  tlie  details  of  the  train- 
ing and  the  opportunities  oiT(>red  on  complclion  of  the  course, 
with  special  emphasis  upon  the  fact  tiiat  the  final  selection 
will  be  made  of  those  who  show  the  proper  ciualificalions  for 
the  work.  It  has  been  estimated  that  one  fourth  of  the  ap- 
plicants are  chosen  to  take  tlie  cours(>,  and  of  these  one 
third  become  salesmen.  The  course  is  given  free  of  charge, 
but  the  expenses  of  th(>  students  are  i;ot  paid.^'  The  Na- 
tional Cash  Register  Company  and  many  other  firms  have 
develf)ped  schools  for  salesmen. 

Instruction  on  the  Floor.  —  The  .Ios(>ph  and  Fiiss  Com- 
pany follows  a  difT(>rent  method  in  instructing  its  garment 
workers.  A  corps  of  instructors  teaches  new  operatives 
from  two  to  ten  jobs  at  the  regular  machines.  An  hourly 
retainer  is  given  while  th(>  new  hand  is  undei'  instruction,  to 
make  up  the  regular  wage.  The  plan  of  tea(hing  a  mnuber 
of  jobs  provides  an  extra  UK^nlal  stimulus  for  the  employe 
l)y  introducing  variety  into  the  work  and  assuiing  a  re- 
serv(>  force  for  nee(>ssary  shifts  as  well.'-  The  .\merican 
Pulley  Company  chooses  a  new  employe  on  the  grounds  of 
general  fitness  and  adaptaliility  and  then  places  him  undei' 
an  instructor's  supervision,  as  a  "  knockal)out  "'  woiker, 
tmtil  his  proper  niche  is  found."  Smaller  factories  in  which 
ext(>nsive  training  schools  are  not  ])racticalile  might  per- 
haps follow  th(>  plan  which  is  [jiaeticeil  by  the  superin- 
tendent of  :i  1issue-paj)er  concein.  Tiie  instiiiction  of  new 
workers  is  centralizi'd  in  two  old  employes  selected  not  oidy 
because  of  their  geiiei.d  skill  in  the  ditVercut  kinds  of  work, 
but  for  their  patience  and  thoiou)ihness." 

Education  of  Blind  and  Crippled.  To  >vhat  extent  the 
indi\idual  erniiluyer  can  undertake  tlie  tr.iining  of  'he 
physically    handicapped    is    not    cle.ir.     In    un»\    instances 


92 


THK    HUMAN-    FACTOR    IX    INDUSTRY 


some  other  ap:eiu\y  imisi   in  all  proljability  tie  reliod  on  to 
do  tho  training-.     Nevertheless,  the  results  of  the  Crocker- 
Wheeler  C\)iiii)any  of  Ampere,  New  Jersey,  in  training  the 
blind  to  wind  coils  foi'  ai'inattu'es  is  siifiy:('stive.     Since  the 
fall  of  1917,  some  three  hundred  and  fifty  blind  people  have 
been  so  trained.     The  peiiod  of  trMinitit;-  is  fi-om   three  to 
four   weeks.     When    proficient,    liie   blind    woikers  are   put 
in  the  rejiular  shops  with  the  siiiiited  woi'kers,  and  they  earn 
as  naich  in  ei^ht   lioiu's  as  the  siiihted  workers  do  in  seven, 
and  their  work  is  of  a  hi>iher  (lu.alily.     The  dihitioii  of  the 
regular  force  witii   tliese  lilind  workers  has  been   found   to 
iiave  a  stead\in^  elTeel   on  ;i!l  the  employes  because  of  th(> 
eanu'stnes'^  and  concentration  witli   which  they  work,  and 
the  school   is   m.aintaiiied   oidy   because   it    is  an   efiiciency 
producer  and  financially  profital)Ie  to  the  Company.''     This 
cxampl(>  has  Ikhmi  followed  by  a  mnnlier  of  indu-tri.il  C(in- 
cerns    throujihout    the    country,    ;iiid  also   abroad,    notably 
the  Western  Illectiic  Comp.nny  of  New  York,  the  Consoli- 
dated Safety  Pin  ( "ompany  of  Hloomfi(>ld,  New  .Jersey,   the 
Combination    Hui.bei'   Company    of    IMoomfield,    the    New 
Toy  Comicmy  of  Newark,  the  West  nijihouse  iilectric  Com- 
pany   of    Pittsburjih,    tiie    ( lencr.d     lllectric    Company    t.f 
London  and  I'irminuh.am,  and  the  Thom<on-Houston  Com- 
panv   in   l''rance.      It   is  int<'restin^  to  note  in   this  connec- 
tion tliat  the  I'oid  Motor  ( 'oinp;in,\   found  after  ;i  sin'V(\\-  of 
their    factory    that     they    could   placi-     \():V2    crippled    men, 
2<'i:}7  onede^p'd  men,  (i7<)  lejdess  men,  71.")  one-armed  men, 
and  10  tot;dly  blind  ones.'"' 

Need  for  Training  in  the  Job.  Th.>  recognition  and 
development  of  .aiiility  in  a  workiiij;  force  is  essential  to  the 
siKcess  of  ;iii  industry,  it  must  rely  almost  exclusively, 
if  not  entirely,  upon  itscit"  to  fill  positions  of  nj-cater  resi)onsi- 
bility.  '■  StealiiiL!:  "  from  otl:ec  concerns  is  in  the  lonL'  iini 
bad  IiUsintss  policy.  It  weakens  the  morale  of  a  workm^j 
force  if  the  future  d<ies  not   lioid  promise  of  reward.     Any 


EDUCATION 


93 


newcomer  must  overcome  opposition  and  loarn  the  methods 
and  point  of  view  of  the  new  firm.  Promotion  from  within 
has  disadvantajres  —  it  may  lead  to  slow  decay  because  new 
ideas  are  not  hroufiht  in,  hut  for  most  positions  with  most 
concerns,  it  is  the  hcst  p<.li,y.  To  make  such  a  program 
possible,  training  is  essential;  but  industry  must  also  face 
the  problc'-i  of  making  the  worker  as  -ffcctivc  as  p.,ssiblc 
in  the  job  that  ho  is  holding.  Tli<'  old  employe  as  well  as 
the  new  is  worthy  of  serious  thought  and  consideration. 

Special  Training  Classes.  —  In  order  to  acquaint  their 
employes  with  the  .-{X'cial  i)roblems  within  the  individual 
mdustry,  many  emjiloyers  have  formed  special  training 
classes  open  to  those  who  care  to  join.  Fre(iuently  these 
give  the  worker  the  opportunity  to  view  the  l)usiness  as  a 
whole  and  to  realize  his  place  in  the  structure  of  the  organi- 
zation. 

Western    Electric    System    of    Special    Training.  —  The 

Western  Klectric  ('oni|)any  has  a  number  of  such  train- 
ing classes  in  various  departments.  Ii,  the  engineering 
division,  courses  in  the  history  and  rule^  of  th(>  company 
and  in  th(>  study  of  the  pnictical  uses  of  ejcctiicity  miv  op(>n 
to  high-school  arid  granunar-school  gradu.ates,  while  ;i  special 
class  in  intensive  training  in  the  ;iclivities  of  the  company 
is  given  for  the  graduates  of  either  colle<res  or  technical 
schools.  The  manufacturing  division  ol'feis  an  accounting 
course  of  one  year  for  clerical  work,  a  production  course  of 
forty  weeks  in  shop  coiiunercial  work,  and  a  three  years'  course 
of  technical  training  in  tool  designing  combined  with  pr.acti- 
cal  work  in  niech;inics  to  those  who  have  completed  either 
high  school  or  granunar  .school.  In  the  in-^tidlation  de- 
partment a  jxaiod  of  school  work  in  elccliical  tiieory  and 
telephone  practi-c  is  given  .after  the  irsu;d  preliminary  train- 
ing, accompanied  by  six  months'  Inid  work.  Speci.d  tr.ain- 
in^  lor  the  po>ition  of  supervisor  i>  liixcti  to  the  gradu.ato 
who  shows  marked  ability.     The  distribiiting  organization 


» 


u 


THE    IirMAX    FACTOR    IX    TXDFSTRY 


offors  ono  year  coiniiKM-cial  cdursi^  to  all  collo'io  jrrades. 
This  cninbincs  six  months'  study  of  th(>  distrihutiiiii  end  of 
the  husiiioss  and  six  months  in  the  sliops  installing  tole- 
phones.  At  the  end  of  this  period  the  employe  is  placed  at 
the  work  for  which  he  is  hest  iiualified.^"  These  cf)urses 
cover  eveiy  branch  of  the  l)usi!iess  and  represent  a  com- 
plete and  well  worked  out  system  of  specinl  training.  Simi- 
lar systems  (jf  pi'actical  and  theoretical  education  have  l)een 
adopted  l>y  the  American  Locomotive  Company,  the  New 
York  Hdisoii  Company,  and  others. 

Stenographic  Classes. — The  instruction  in  st(>nop;raphy 
given  by  the  Me*ro])o]itan  Life  Insurance  Company  is 
popular.  One  !iun<lre(l  and  fifty  employes  wen^  studj'ing 
stenography  in  VMH  U>r  two  nights  a  week,  either  as  be- 
ginntM's  or  in  sp(>e(l  classes.  The  dassf's  ai'(^  open  to  any 
em])loye  with  a  knowledge  of  the  fundamentals.  Pro- 
motions are  made  from  these  (lasses  into  tli(>  company 
stenographic  division. 

Special  Training  for  Selected  Salesmen.  —  \n  intensive 
and  {)ra<'lical  course  of  six  and  one  half  wi'cks  in  Methods 
of  Production  is  offered  i>v  the  Amciican  Steel  and  Wire 
C()m|)any  to  certain  sclectccl  (>mployes  who  are  considered 
capable  of  progressing.  This  consists  of  mill  inspertions, 
lectures,  (|iuzzes,  .and  discaissioiis,  and  the  tim(>  i<  (li\i(l(>d 
among  the  three  pl.ants  at  ('levelaiid.  Pittsbmgh,  .and 
Worcester.  Only  twelve  men  are  entered  in  e.icli  class. 
Reports  are  made  weekly  and  record-  kei)t  to  which  the 
company  may  refer  at  .anytime.  The  ( 'onipaiiy  believes 
that  the  comi)lele  survey  that  i<  gi\-en  of  the  business  devel- 
o|)s  the  niiai  mentally  .and  enli-.ts  tlcir  active  interest  in  its 
success,''' 

Correspondence  Classes.  .\  common  w.ay  of  tr.ain- 
ing  eiiiployes  uho  ate  --catt^  ed  o\aa'  a  wide  geogr.aphic.al 
area  is  li\'  me.ans  of  ihi'  correspondence  coin'se.  Some 
of  these  have  been  i(an,irkalily  sui'cessful,     The  Metropoli- 


m 


w 


K  DUCAT  I  ON' 


95 


tan  Lifo  Insuraiico  Company  in  191 S  onrollod  3000  field 
ap;onts  in  lis  corn'siiondcncc  ((nirsc  on  lilV  insurance.  In 
the  s("V(>n  years  since  tli(>  coiiise  was  started,  ToOO  individuals 
have  Ix'cn  graduatt>d.  Agents  are  admitted  to  the  cf)urso 
after  six  niontlis  of  service.  Huiiim  the  cours(>  of  (h(>  twelve 
lessons,  cdtiferences  ar'c  lield  uitli  the  district  superin- 
teniients.  The  effect  in  increasing  the  efRcieiicy  of  the  force 
and  reiluciuff  turnover  is  indicated  hy  the  success  of  the 
fi!;ra(hiates.'-'  Other  einplnyers  encourafi(>  their  employes 
to  take  outside  correspondence  classes,  soiiK^times  paying 
the  fees  if  (he  cDurses  are  successfully  completed. 

Special  Training  for  Foremen.  —  In  (-rder  to  promote 
ccHiperation  Iietweeii  the  empioyment  di'partnient  anil  the 
foremen  in  the  Dennison  Mamifacturirifz;  Company,  a  three 
inontlis'  trainiiifi  period,  during  which  tlie  foremen  work  in 
the  emi)loyment  bureau  as  assistants  to  the  employment 
nianajrer,  has  been  arranged.  The  foreman  upon  entering 
the  cotu'se  is  fiiveti  a  list  of  suuizcsted  readinu;.  lie  studies 
employment  methods  in  other  concerns  and  ;dso  has  a  chance 
to  do  rey;ular  interviewing,  in  order  to  understand  th(>  prac- 
tical side  of  the  work.  The  education  ^iv(>s  him  the  broad 
point  of  view  of  the  whole  organization  and  a  better  under- 
standinjf  of  human  beini^s.''-' 

Training  Executives.  -  In  .addition  to  i)lans  such  as  these, 
some  companies  have  introduced,  definite  i-aininfi  for  exeiai- 
live  [)ositions  eitli(>r  in  a  major  or  a  minor  capacity.  The 
Packard  .\dvanced  Trainitiu;  School  of  ilu'  Piu'kard  Motor 
(':ir  (dnipany  prepares  men,  chosen  becaus(>  of  umisual 
.'d)ilily,  for  (he  minor  executive  positions  in  the  i)lan(.  The 
fir-;(  class  gr.idua(ed  ITU  nirn  (rained  for  the  posi(ions  of 
jol)  setters  anil  foremen.  The  class  met  for  an  hour  a  day 
f'lr  ten  days.  The  sul»jec(s  sdidieil  included  (he  handling 
of  men,  the  premium  system,  (ime  studies,  (he  care  of  ma- 
chinery, safe(y  ;uid  s.initation  iiiettiod^.  ;ind  routine  and 
system    work.      UesuKs    were    so    sa(i>fa(torv    (iiat    classes 


I: 


r 


90 


THE    IIUMAX    FACTOR   IN   INDUSTRY 


wore  addoil  for  tli(>  woiiion  instnu'tors  of  Iho  ''  vostibulo  " 
scliool  and  for  the  foi'cMucii  already  in  the  plant,  to  ti;ive  tluMii 
flic  opportunity  for  liroadcr  ('(lucalional  advanta^;os.'" 

Training  for  Minor  Executives.  —  The  W.  H.  McEl- 
wain  Company,  shoe  inanufactunMs  of  Manchester,  N.  H., 
lias  oriranized  traininii  classes  for  niiiior  executive  po- 
sitions alon^  similar  lines.  Can>fully  selected  candidates 
take  courses  lastinjj;  one  to  thnn'  weeks,  consisting;  of 
office  and  classroom  work  and  field  woi'k  in  factory.  Dur- 
ing th(>  first  two  or  thre(>  months  after  the  conijiletion  of 
the  cours(>  the  manaiicr  keeps  track  of  the  work  of  the 
graduate  and  holds  conferences  with  hiin.  The  company 
claims  that  graduates  ai'e  pi'omoted  twice  a.s  fast  as  those 
who  have  not  taken  the  ti-aining." 

Flying  Squadron  of  Goodyear  Tire  and  Rubber  Company. 
—  The  (loodyear  Tire  and  Rubber  ("ompany  instructs  the 
"  Flying  Squadron."  a  j^roup  of  chosen  men,  for  two  hours  a 
we(>k  in  English,  shop  aritlini(>tic,  mechanical  drawing, 
economics,  manageiiKait,  and  rubb(>r  manufacture,  so  that 
men  with  a  good  technical  ami  general  education  will  be 
availal)l<>  for  (executive  positions. '- 

Promotions.  Tli(>  promotion  systems  in  many  instances 
are  less  formal  methods  of  training  men  while  they  are 
working.  The  so-called  "  t!ire(>  posit i<,ns  plan  "  of  promo- 
tion, which  has  been  put  into  operation  in  several  com- 
panies by  Mr.  and  Mrs.  I'nink  (lilbicth,  phucs  each  man  in 
the  organization  in  three  positions,  first,  the  one  last  oc- 
cupied by  the  m;m  ;  >ecoiid,  the  pre-cnt  position;  and  third, 
the  position  for  which  tli(>  man  will  next  be  eligible.  In 
this  w.iy  (^veryone  has  three  functions  to  ])erforni —  (1)  to 
ti'ach  tlie  man  under  him,  occupying  th(>  old  positiini,  how 
to  fill  it,  i'2)  to  do  the  work  of  his  new  position,  and  {'.\)  to 
learn  tli(>  work  of  the  man  in  tin-  jiosition  next  above.*' 
Till"  division  offici'rs  in  one  large  concern  f;imiliari/.(>  them- 
selves with  the  work  in  the  genera!  oilice  while  their  sub- 


EDUCATION 


97 


ordinatcs  do  their  work,  anrl  so  on  down  the  line.     Thus 
new  men  are  constantly  Ixunp;  tried  out  and  trained  for  tlie 
future.-^     Such  •'  understudy  "  plans  are  used  bv  many  rail- 
road orfjanizat  ions,  hy  the  Fore  Hiver  Shiphuildinti  Corpo- 
ration, the  Tiiited  Ci,!i;ar  Stores,  the  National  Cash  Register 
Company,  and  the  Dennison  Manufacturinu;  Company. ■"'■  " 
Coordinated  Education  and  Promotion.  —  The  National 
City  Bank  of  New  York  City  has  a  carefully  coordinated 
system   of  education   and    promotion.     A   youn,<^   Ijoy,   for 
instance,  may  he  examined  and  if  satisfactory  taken  on  as  an 
office  boy  or  page,  and  phurd  in  the  Page  Class  for  om>  month. 
In  this  Page  Class,  which  meets  twice  a  week  during  busi- 
ness liours,  he  learns  the  geography,  rules,  and  officers  of  the 
bank,  vie.     If  he  passes  the  examination  given  at  the  end  of 
th(>  mcmth  and  if  his  p(-rsonality  seems  titled  for  the  work, 
he  is  entered  as  a  regular  page  at  th.>  end  of  thre.>  months' 
probation  period  and  reniains  a  page  fiom  one  to  two  years. 
He  is  then  eligible  for  the  messengers'  depanment   of  the 
fihng  flepartment,   but    must    first  attend  th"    Messengers' 
Filers'  Class  for  one  monlli  and  pass  another  examination 
before  promotion.     After  six  months  he  i.>  considered  for 
promotion  to  the  check  desk,  for  which  work  h(>  imist  again 
be  trained.     While  at  the  check  desk  he  is  allowed  to  apply 
for  one  of  the  special  ••las.ses  in  stenography,  bookkeeping, 
foreign   exchange,   credits,   foreign   trade,   new  Inisiness,   in- 
dustrial service,  or  bonds,  loans,  and  investm(>nts,  and  if  the 
Kducational  Connnittee  apjiroves  of  his  ehoic(>  he  is  then 
trained   for  this  still   higher  work.     This  seciuence  of  posi- 
lions  and  classes  covers  a  jx-riod  of  nine  years  and  combines 
with  technic.al   inform;ition  on   the  history  an<i  methods  of 
l)ankmg,    courses    in     laighsh    and    .aritlimetic.      When    an 
employe  is  in  tln^  Fourth  Ve.ar  Clas^  work  and  lia-  boen  with 
the   b.ank   two   y(>,irs,   he    may   select    and  alti-nd  .ipproved 

"'^"'^  '"  Hngh^hand  Polilic.il  Ivonomy  i-i  nut  dde  seliooh, 

and    the   City    iiank   ( 'lub,   :iri   ori:Mj!i/ati'>n   •.•'   flie   ..l..-;,.,! 


98 


THE    IIUMAX    FACTOR    IX    INDUSTRY 


force,  will  rrfuiid  all  icv^  for  such  courses  upon  satisfactory 
conipletioa.  A  lew  of  those  who  eater  the  bank  from  the 
high  schools  or  collet's,  having  apparent  al)ility,  are  en- 
rolled in  tlie  Ai)prenticeship  Course  of  the  Bank  ftjr  a  period 
of  from  two  to  four  years.  The  bank  retains  the  privilege 
of  terminating  Ihe  apprenticeship  when(>ver  the  employe's 
work  is  unsatisfactory.  These  apprentices  are  shifted  from 
department  to  department  and  promoted  more  rapidly  than 
the  other  workers.  Several  of  the  apprentices  are  selected 
each  year  to  become  members  of  the  College  Training  Class, 
in  which  college^  graduates  are  trained  for  foreign  service.'" 

Plant  Charts.  —  .\  plant  chart,  giving  every  position  in 
its  relation  to  every  other,  facilitates  promotions.  When 
the  new  emjiloye  is  eiigageil  and  interviewed  his  position 
on  this  cliart  is  indicat(>d,  >howing  tlie  possil)le  line  of  ad- 
vancement and  the  probable  length  of  time  it  will  take  him 
to  advance.  If  the  employ(>  wishes  he  may  tell  what  line  of 
promotion  he  would  like  to  follow.  At  int(>rvals  thereafter 
the  manager  of  promotion  should  interview  the  employe 
and  check  up  his  progress  on  the  chart,  and  when  unsatis- 
factory, make  an  effort  to  discover  the  reason.  If  an  employe 
chooses  to  remain  in  any  one  position  permanently,  he  should 
then  teach  his  sul)ordinate  only  enough  of  his  work  for  that 
man  to  advance  at)ove  him. 


CiKNKUAI.    EnlCATION 

Need  for  General  Education.  —  Besides  the  special  train- 
ing which  employes  ar(>  receiving  to  make  them  effective 
workers,  familiar  witii  tiie  technical  prnblcuis  of  the  in- 
dustry, and  to  train  their  executive  ability,  employers  are 
seeking  to  develdp  ureitcr  cfrn'iciicy  iiy  a  certain  anidunt 
of  general  education.  Anii'ri''ani.':at  ion  class("<  and  eilu- 
rational  campaiu?!--  ii  ive  been  devel(ip<'d  to  promote-  safety 
and  to  raise  the  healtli  level  of  the  w(jrking  force;   cultural 


EDUCATION 


99 


classes  hnvc  hoen  formod  to  increase  the  general  grade  of 
intelligence;  meetings  oi'  executives  and  workmen  are  held 
in  order  to  induce  cooperation  by  tlu>  discussion  of  knotty 
problems;  and  finally  tlie  plant  organ  is  i)ul)lislied  in  order 
to  increase  the  esprit  de  corps  of  the  organization  and  to 
serve  as  a  further  educational  medium. 

English    Classes.  —  Between    190()   and    1014    over    ten 
miiiion  male  foreigners  al)ove  fourteen  years  of  age  came 
to  the  United  States.       Tliis  group  has  entered  American 
industiy.     School  authoi-ities  have  to  date  been  unable  to 
teach  them  I^iglish  and  have  only  in  a  small  measure  pre- 
pared them  for  citizenship.       Realizing  these  facts,  many 
employers  have  undertaken  to  teach  English  to  foreign-born 
employes.     A  knowledge  of  English  on  the  part  of  the  em- 
ployes is  of  obvious  advantage  to  employers,  as  the  fudow- 
ing  e.xample  will  illustrate.     The  Ford  Motor  Company,  in 
two  years'  time  after  non-English-sijeaking  employes  were 
compelled  to  attend  English  classes,  attributed  a  54  percent 
reduction  in  accidents  to  the  fact  that  the  men  could  read  the 
.safety  signs  and  un(l(Tstan<l  orders  and  instruction.^     More- 
over,   the   inability    to   understand    th<>   language   seriously 
affects  th(>  effii'i(M)cy  of  tl;e  worker.     The  factory  record  of 
thirty-five  foreign  workers  with  Joseph  and  I'ciss  Company 
who  could  not  speak   English  shows  that  only  one  of   the 
thirty-five  had  reached  the  (efficiency  of  the  best  in  his  line 
ol  work,  eight  were  below  average  in  efficiency,  and  twenty- 
six  wn-r  th(>  least  efficient  in  their  respective  operations.-"' 

Solvay  Americanization  Plan.  —  In  i)lannirig  English 
classes,  employers  should  study  the  needs  and  the  facilities 
of  the  connmmity.  The  Solvay  Company  of  Syracuse, 
half  of  whose  employes  are  non-l'lnglish-spiviking,  holds 
das.ses  directly  after  working  hours;  attendance^  is  compul- 
sory, and  one  half  the  regular  wage  rate  is  paid.  All  un- 
excused     absences    ar(>     investigated.       The     teachers     are 

U!'OVid(>d       bv      •!!!'      !!!■!;!!:■       '.;:h!:;i!         Siit  !!;;:;i;.w 


1 11     vJi'iaCi      tO 


100 


THE    HUMAN    FACTOR    IN    INDUSTRY 


speciiilizo  the  instruct ii)n  an  attempt  is  made  to  acquaint 
pupils  witli  the  conditions  in  in(histry  l)y  trips  through  the 
plant,  on  which  production  problems  are  exi^lained.  The 
development  of  a  sjiecial  textbook  for  these  classes  based  on 
the  necessary  vocational  vocabulary  is  the  ultimate  aim.^' 
Many  corporations  now  re(}uire  all  new  employes  to  attend 
and  graduate  from  English  classes.  In  the  .Joseph  and  Feiss 
Companj',  teachers  and  t(>xtl)ooks  are  furnished  by  the 
Board  of  Education  of  Cleveland.  The  Ford  English  School 
is  manned  l)y  teachers  fi'om  among  the  employes  themselves 
who  volunteer  for  this  work.  The  course  consists  of  .seventy- 
two  lessons,  taught  in  thirty-six  weeks,  for  two  hours  a  day, 
twice  a  week.  For  the  Fore  River  Shipljuilding  Company, 
tlie  North  American  Lc^ague  i)rovides  English  teachers,** 
while  the  Pennsylvania  Railroad  employs  its  own  instructors. 

Compulsory  Attendance  at  Classes  with  Pay,  Best  Plan. 
—  The  plan  of  paying  the  individual  for  attendance  is  prob- 
ably the  most  satisfactory  nu^tliod.  The  class  is  usually 
held  directly  before  or  after  work  hours  and  the  pay  based  on 
the  regular  wage.  This  method  compels  every  non-Eng- 
lish-speaking employe  to  attend  the  classes  with  pay,  so 
that  no  one  will  escape  instruction  and  remain  an  indus- 
trial hazard  and  a  needles:  !y  inefficient  worker.-*'-* 

Instruction  in  Other  Subjects  Often  Combined  with  Eng- 
lish Classes.  —  D.  E.  Sicher  and  Company,  of  New  York, 
make  tlie  English  classes  interesting  to  the  employes  be- 
cause th(>  teacliing  of  English  is  only  incidental  to  stere- 
opticon  lectures,  th(>  teaching  of  dressmaking,  drawing,  and 
arithmetic. ='  The  Pennsylvania  Railroad  teaches  English 
by  means  of  stereopticon  lectures,  with  views  of  the  proper 
antl  imjiroper  ways  of  doing  work.-'"  The  Du  Pont  Powder 
Company  also  teaches  English  while  displaying  stereopticon 
views  of  safety  work. 

Health  and  Safety  Education.  —  There  is  close  relation- 

olii*^    lwitit-j»/»i»     T.^twrli^li     <^»l.»wwi»c     .»»»(l     cofot\'    "iiwi     Kii.ilfll     nrr\rb-     in 

-iiiis     :.",  V  *r  •_ -.  •  t      i.'i^iv-"     *    »^t  •. -      


E  DUCAT  U)  NT 


101 


many  m.lusfrics.     Manv  coinpanir-s  .■omhine  the  two  under 
one  person  ;   the  safety  eiifiineer  ,.f  the  S„lvav  Company  for 
instance,  is  director   of    the  Anieri.^anization  schools  ^  Ex- 
tensive programs  f„r  liealth  and  safety  ethication  have  l)een 
undertaken.     Safety    propaganda    has    takcni    the    form    of 
meetmgs   in  company  time  or   (hninn   noon  hour,  h-ctures 
often  accompanied  by  moving  pi.iu.vs,  la.Hctins  posted  in 
conspicu(,us  places  and  often  ilhistrate.l  hv  graphic  draw- 
ings,  material   printed   in   the  plant  organ/  safety  contests 
and  safety  committees  which  work  up  new  forms  of  arous- 
ing and  mainlaining  interest  in  the  importance  of   "safety 
fir^st."     Health  education,  usually  directed  hy  the  medical 
department,  tak(>s  much  th(.  same  form  as  the  safeiv  work 
Lectures  on   hygiene,    meetings   illustrated   by   charts  and 
pictures,  health  pamphlets,  and  articles  in  the  companv  paper 
are  among  the  main  features.     The  details  of  educa'tion  in 
safety  and  health  are  given  in  the  chapters  on  "  Working 
Conditions  "  ■  Medical  Care." 

Cultural  ClaL     s.     Company  Cultural  Classes.  —  Classes 
in  literature,  current  events,  general  information,  personal 
hygiene,  drawmg,  sewing,  music,  domestic  science,  and  other 
subjects  not  related  to  the  da>^  work  mav  l,e  considered 
cultural  classes.     In  many  instances  these  chisses  are  under 
the  auspices  of  a  recreational  club  or  as.soiaal ion  within  the 
industry,  as  foi-  instance  the  Wanamaker  Women's  League, 
which  comlucts  domestic  sci(>nc(>  class(>s  open  to  all  nu'mber.s 
of  tho  le.igue,  or  tlie  National   Cash   Register  Club,  which 
includes  in  its  curriculum  courses  on  salesmansiiip,  adver- 
tising,   bu.siness-letter   writing,    shop    mathematics,'   public 
speaking,    mechanical    drawing,    five-lian.l    drawing,    book- 
keeping, and  printing.^'     Where  tlu^se  ..la.sses  ar(>  not  organ- 
ized  under  an  (>mployes'    dub    the  company  often  super- 
vises them.     The  John   Wanamaker  Commercial  Institute 
offers  mstruction  m  academic  and  g(>neral  .-ommercial  work 
r^^-^riv,  vLiii-c;,,  a::u  piiyoicai  Tmiiuiig  iij  evening  sessions  lor 


102 


Till-;    IllMAN    KA(T()I{    IN'    IXDl'STKY 


hoys  and  liirls,  held  twiro  a  week..'-'  The  Motrnpolitan 
Life  Insurance  ("ompaiiy  holds  sewinu;  and  millinery  classes 
daily  at  ■}.}.")  i>.m.  just  after  closiiii!:  time,  for  an  hour.  In 
1018  forty  employes  were  ic^istered  in  tlie  millinery  classes 
and  fifty  in  the  sewiiiix  class(>s.  lAcniii^  classes  in  the 
Bouiriville  Woiks.  England,  provide  instruction  in  art, 
needlewdik,  cookery,  and  laundry-work,  h_\;j:ieiie,  phj'siology, 
ht)me  dressmakinji,  sick  nursing',  and  care  of  infants,  Eiif^lish 
literature,  and  arithmetic.  In  this  concern,  moreover, 
eveniii}:  classes  in  f2;(>neral  academic  work  as  a  means  of 
broadeninjj;  jicneral  (>ducation  are  comi)uls()ry  for  both  girls 
and  hoys,  the  latter  choosinfj;  between  a  jj;eneral  conmiercial 
and  an  ,,idustrial  course.-'' 

Cultural  Classes  Outside  of  Industry.  —  The  many  pri- 
vate social  ajicncies,  sucii  as  the  V.  ^l.  (\  A.  and  the 
Y.  W.  C".  .v.,  for  example,  wJiich  offer  eveninj;  classes  of  this 
type  will  eventually  be  in  the  .same  position  as  emi)loyers' 
activities.  To  an  increasinji;  extent.  pul)lic  authorities  are 
(lisplai'ing  employers  and  private  agcMicies  in  this  field.  It 
is  rather  the  function  of  a  boiu'd  of  education  to  furnish 
das.ses  of  this  kind  than  of  industry.  ^lany  of  the  public 
high  schools  and  even  elenumtary  schools  as  well  provide  night 
courses.  The  regular  night  schools  are  beginning  to  offer 
full  schedules,  including  doinesti"  science,  manual  training, 
and  other  culttu'al  classes.  But  employers  can  be  of  real 
service  to  their  emi)loyes  in  this  comiection  by  putting  them 
in  touch  with  th(>  facilities  provided  b\'  outside  agencies. 
The  Westerti  Electrii-  Company  does  this  through  an  In- 
formation Bureau  estal)lished  in  the  Hawthorne  Club  rooms. 
The  employes  are  given  information  and  advice  in  regard  to 
the  courses  of  study  in  the  outsid  ■  night  scliools.''" 

Educational  Program  and  Garment  Workers  Union.  — 
.\gain.  labor  union  activities  may  displace  the  employer 
in   the   fit'ld   of   cultural   education.     Th(>    beginnings   have 


i.-.^...   ......I, 


il...     I. 


.1     ( 


,1      \\',...l.......     TT...'..r. 


RDUPATIOM 


103 


in  a  numbor  of  ritios.  Thoy  have  c-oopprato<l  with  boards 
of  education  and  opon(>d  courses  in  literature,  EnRlish, 
sociology,  and  social  i)r(jbleins  fre(>  to  all  the  members  of  the 
union.  Tri-u-er.kly  classes  ;,re  held  in  the  public  school  and 
qualified  teachers  are  furnished  by  the  educational  authori- 
ties.'^ 

Continuation  Schools.  —  An  interesting  phase  of  cultural 
classes  is  the  so-called  rontiimation  schools,  which  aim  to 
give  children  between  the  ages  of  fourteen  and  sixteen  years, 
who  are  regularly  employed  in  industry,  an  opportunity  to 
increase  their  general  education.  In  five  States  — Wisconsin, 
New  York,  Massachusetts,  .Michigan,  and  Peimsylvania, these 
children  attend  continuation  schools  for  a  minimum  time  of 
four  hours  each  week  in  the  employers'  time.  In  some 
cases  the  classes  are  held  in  rooms  provided  an<l  equipped 
by  the  employer;  in  others,  the  children  go  to  classes  in  the 
public  school  buildings;  but  in  all  cases  the  teachers  are 
employed  and  assigned  to  their  work  by  the  Board  of  Edu- 
cation. 

The  industrial  sehool  for  which  Cermany  is  famous  is 
strictly  a  contimiati(  n  .'^chool.  It  is  used  to  continue  the 
general  education  of  the  child  who  either  is  forced  or  wishes 
to  go  into  industiy  as  soon  as  legally  permitted  t  >  do  so  and 
before  the  elementary  education  has  been  compl(>ted.  It  is, 
therefore,  at  best  a  compromise  and  a  forecast  of  a  higher  age 
limit  within  which  full  tini(>  school  attendance  will  be  re- 
quired. In  Boston  the  attempt  is  made,  however,  to  have 
these  sch()ols  ^unction  as  vocational  schools  trying  the 
pupil  out  in  -.arious  processes  and  c.xirdinating  tlie  school 
work  with  his  work  in  industry.  In  the  last  analysis  the 
time  for  training  allowed  hi  the  continuati(m  scluxil  is  too 
meager  to  make  possible  startling  results,  .so  that  for  those 
compelled  to  enter  industry  but  capable  of  absorbing  a  higher 
vocatioiid  tr.dning,  the  part-time  school  will  probably 
supersede  the  cuniinualion  school. 


m-~ 


5J?: 


104 


TIIK    HUMAN    FACTOR    IX    INDUSTRY 


Libraries  and  Magazines.  —  Another  method  of  pro- 
xuVrn^  ciiiployes  with  the  opportiiiiic y  of  widenuiff  their 
intellectual  horizon  is  th<>  establishment  of  libraries  in  in- 
dustrial plants.  Occasionally  it  is  tlic  pul)lic  library  which 
establishes  a  branch  in  th{>  factory,  but  freciuently  tlie  com- 
pany Imys  its  own  books.  The  library  of  the  ^Metropolitan 
Life  Insurance  Company  is  a  branch  of  the  New  York  Pub- 
lic Library,  but  in  addition  has  some  2()()()  volumes  of  its 
own  on  ficneral  sul)j('cts  as  well  as  an  insurance  reference 
library  of  ov(m-  2(),()()()  volumes.  The  circul.it  ion  among 
6000  employes  is  at  th(>  rate  of  200  volumes  a  day.  The 
National  Cash  I^e^ister  Company  outlines  sujrgested  courses 
of  nvidinp;;  2.")  per  cent  of  t!ic  1100  men  (Mii|)!oy('(l  aiid  12 
per  cent  of  the  200  women  are  members  of  the  library.''* 
The  lil>raries  in  the  readinu;  rooms  of  the  Santa  I'e  Rail- 
road contain  IS, ."00  volumes  and  ha\-e  a  <!aily  circulation 
amonu:  S.")00  employes.''"'  ^^aii  anes  and  newspapers  arc 
freciuently  ])rovided  in  the  reading  and  rest  rooms,  and  in 
clubhouse'^.  'I'lie  character  of  the  employes  detenniiies  th<^ 
kinds  of  ma^.azines  desired.  ( 'oniij.anies  that  employ  large 
numbers  of  foici^n-born  workers  fre(iueritly  have  newsjiaixTS 
in  foreign  laiiguaiics  to  meet  the  demands  of  this  group. 
The  American  Rollinii  Mill  .at  ^liddlelown,  Ohio.  e<|)ecially, 
makes  a  jioint  of  tloing  this  in  its  reading  room  for  foreign 
workmcMi.^' 

PersornC  Meetings.-  l^esides  educating  the  individual 
emjiloye,  the  emplover  has  come  to  realize  the  truth  of  the 
old  saying  that  two  heiids  are  better  ihan  one  .and  that 
valiialile  educational  re-ulls  come  fnim  meeting'^  Iwld  be- 
tween wiirkmen  or  executives  for  the  dis(ais>inii  of  eoimnon 
prolilems.  Tiie  Tuesday  niornim:  mi'etings  of  the  executives 
in  llie  dilTeveiit  depart nients  of  llie  Murroughs  Adding  Ma- 
chine ( 'iimpan\'  n-nhed  m  the  iii--l;dliiH'nt  «if  an  eiitnciv 
new  system  in  ti.e  :ti(\  mce  mailing  dep.irtment  of  the  ron- 
cern.^'"      Tlie   (Juodyear   Tire    .and    iiubbei'   Company    has 


EDUCATION 


105 


successful  tri-weokly  iiUH'tings  of  foronion  durino;  tho  last 
hour  of  the  day.  Thoso  iuc'ctiii<rs  arc  for  the  (lisru>^ioti  of 
topics  of  special  interest  to  foremen,  to  tlie  safety  and  t(.  the 
persoruiel  departments.  The  head  of  the  employment  de- 
partment at  tends  all  meetings.  To  add  new  interests  speakers 
are  occasionally  iniroduced  to  talk  on  general  subjects. 

The  Kmi)loyes'  Engineerin,ir  ^'lub  of  the  (Invnf.eld  Tap 
an(l  Die  (  orporation  represents  another  method  of  edu- 
catu-g  the  employes  by  group  discussion.  The  full  details 
of  the  organization  of  this  elub  are  giv(-n  under  the  section  on 
educational  clul)s  in  the  chapt(>r  on  "  Recnation."  The 
educational  benefit  alone  derived  from  employes'  meetings, 
m  whatever  form  they  are  organized,  would  seem  to  justify 
their  development. 

Plant  Organ.  —  There  is  ,an  increasing  numlier  of  plants 
and  corporations  that  ar.>  publishing  magazines  and  news- 
p.ipcrs.     The  "  house  org;in,"  conceined  with  sales  methods 
need   not    be  discuss<.l   h..n>.      The   "  plant    organ,"   whose 
object  is  to  "sell  "  tiie  |)lant  to  the  workers,  is  of  interest  in 
this  conn.vt  ion.-"     Its  aim  is  to  convey  to  the  mass  of  workers 
from  president  down  to  water  carrier  the  spirit   of  the  or- 
ganization.''"    It   is  used  to  emphasiz..  to  th(>  emploves  the 
nnportan.'e  of  their  individual  ctTort ,  besides  imbuing  them 
with  the  spirit  of  coop,i;,i  ion.     Tlie  plant  org;in  also  serves 
as   an   (Mhicational    nuMlium.     It    priiil<   ne<'essary   inform.a- 
tion  on  technical  sul)jeets  of  special  interest   to  the  reader, 
and    .safety    and    he.dlli    propag.mda.      An    edjioii.d    state- 
ment in  one  of  these  papers  e\j)n>sses  tin-  purpose  of  il,e 
plant    organ    to   l)e   tin-   pinmotion   of  coo|)eration    between 
employer  and  employe,  ,ind  the  st  rengtiiening  of  the  loyalty 
ol  the  employes  to  (lie  company  and  to  each  other/'i 

Typical  Issue  of  Plant  Organ.  —  .\n  .m.dvHs  of  a  goo.l 
■^hop  paper,  the  Wr.^tmi  Elnlriv  X,irs.  published  by  the 
Uc>terii  i;i,-clric  ("omp.anv.  will  perhaps  indic.ale  the  usual 
I'ontcnts  and  approach.     The  mab'rial  .-f  a  typical  number 


I 


lOG 


THK    Hl'.MAX    FACTOR    IX    INDUSTRY 


may  (><'  ilividcd  iti  u:cii('ral  into  two  tii'oiips  -  arliclos  of 
•iciK  1  I'ducatioiial  interest  and  news  distinctly  relating 
to  |)lant  activities,  in  tlie  fii-st  moup  iielon<z:  an  article  on 
the  economic  situation  aflcr  the  wai'  l>v  the  president  of  the 
company;  one  on  tiie  newest  safety  de\  ice  s  introduced  into 
the  Hawthorne  wiaks,  illustrated  l)y  cut>  of  machines  in 
operation  ;  and  an  account  (jf  a  trip  l>y  the  lu'ail  of  a  depart- 
nuMit  throu^;h  South  America,  enlivened  iiy  snajjshots  of 
interesting  places.  The  icst  of  the  material  throuj^tiout 
the  paper,  with  the  exception  of  fieiieral  suiii^estions  for  self- 
improvement  and  jokes  and  cartoons,  he'onjrs  in  the  .second 
j:;roup.  A  detailed  d, 'script  ion  of  the  annual  field  day,  ac- 
com])anie(l  l)y  photoma|)hs  ;ind  cai'too  .s  of  conipetitors, 
I'ejxirts  of  dull  .activities  and  olhci'  so(  [,  affairs  not  only  in 
the  HawthoiDe  plant  hut  in  hrancli  offices,  form  the  major 
part  of  the  news.  The  write-up  of  the  Annual  Products  Show 
at  the  Il.awthoine  works  is  .accompanied  hy  |)ictui('s  of  the 
most  imixirtant  exhil)its.  This  ide.a  of  ficciuent  illustrations 
either  by  photouiaphs  or  drawiniis  is  distinctly  helpful  in 
securiufj;  and  maintaining;  tl;e  interest  of  the  reader. 

Peisonals  are  scattered  all  ihrouiih  theor^an.  There  is 
a  separate  column  for  marri,iy;e<,  se\-er.d  panes  devoted  to 
till'  i)ul)lication  of  awards  for  service;  the  photoKr;ii)hs  of 
the  em|)loycs  (p-Lalitvinij;  for  the  I  went  \'  oi'  more  yi'.ars  of 
service  appear,  comliined  with  a  short  history  of  their  work 
in  the  company. 

The  magazine  is  full  of  ^(kmI  and  clean  humor.  ,\  special 
pa^e  headed  "  Ivlitor  ivii^e's  ( )wn  I'aiic  "  is  de\-oted  to  jokes 
and  humorous  stories,  replete  with  local  color.  The  (ar- 
toons  are  especially  ;iinusin!r,  tlie  dr.awin^s  of  comiietitors 
i?i  the  events  ( ,f  the  field  ilay  re|)re'ient inji  ,i  hijih  type  of 
comic  art.  Theie  i^  usuallv,  though  not  in  the  case  of  the 
issue  undei  discu'^-ion,  a  fuimy  story  in  tlie  ^tyle  of  Wallace 
Irwin  or  "  \li  |)ooliy,"  hased  on  Western  lilectric  prob- 
lems and  current   plant   news. 


EDUCATION 


107 


But  the  stylo  and  hamiliu^  of  material  in  this  paper  are 
especially  suggestive.  There  is  no  preaeiiing  or  moralizing. 
The  problems  are  discussed  in  a  straightforw.ard,  pointed,  and 
humorous  maimer.  "  Have  you  a  Hateful  Habit  in  your 
Home?  "  is  .  e  heading  for  a  page  filled  with  a  discussion  of 
Inisiness  habits.  One  of  these  which  reads,  "  When  your 
telephone  rings,  alw.iys  answer  '  Hello.'  There  ar(>  only 
aboiit  i;}, ()()()  other  people  at  Hawthorne  witii  the  same 
name,  so  the  person  calling  knows  at  oiic(>  that  he  has  the 
proper  individual,"  gives  the  manner  of  handling  helpful 
suggestions.  The  spirit  in  this  i)lant  organ  is  good.  The 
paper  is  free  from  any  paternal  tone,  and  there  is  an  ab- 
sence of  "  playing  up  "  or  (Milogizing  the  heads  of  the  con- 
cern. One  feels  that  (he  organ  is  edited  directly  for  its 
readers  with  their  roctperatioii  and  tiot  at  them. 

Special  Points  Worth  Mentioning.  —  Articles  wliich  en- 
able the  worker  to  understand  the  work  of  different  depart- 
ments and  the  co(')rdinatioti  of  his  department  witli  the  unit 
as  a  whole  hav<>  a  dehr.itc  place,    -  a  series  of  articles  in  "  The 
Home  on'icf>  "  of  the  Metropolitan  I.ife  Insiu'ance  Company 
may   be   mentioned   in   this  conuiM'tion.     The   (irst    was  on 
mail  handling,  desciibing  in  detail  the  mail  delivcny  within 
the  building,   followed   by  others  on  different   departments. 
Organization    charts  of    departnjents   art>    fre(|ucntly   used. 
Histories  of  the  company  and  of  various  processes  are  help- 
ful  and    of    particular    v.ilue    on    anniversaries    or   special 
occasions.     .\ids  in  education  are  publfshed   in   the  Mirror, 
plant   organ  of    tlie   Charles  Wiili.am    stoics.     This  reviews 
.•I   series  of  business  books  selected  as  bearing  directlv   on 
the  problems  of  the  concern,  and  alMi  pul>li-^lies  articles  on 
Americani/ation  of  interest   to  those  learning  to  master  the 
i'Jtgli'^h  languaire.'' 

Educational  Material.  The  plant  oryan  is  .ui  ideal 
mi'dium  for  the  edueation  of  employe-  m  matters  of  health 
and    III    >ai'ety.      In    the    latter   connection,    |  he    publication 


108 


THE    IIUMAX    FACTOR    IX    INDUSTRY 


of  actual  photofiraplis  and  cartoons  is  CNpecially  valuable 
should  there  be  a  foreifi;n  or  illit(>rate  group/"  The  reprint 
of  an  article  on  ven(>real  diseases  by  the  War  Department 
Commissioii  on  Training  Camp  Activilics  in  one  paper  was 
excellent. ■'■'  The  Cleneral  Chemical  Bulletin  of  the  Ceneral 
Chemical  Company  conducts  a  special  Health  and  Hygiene 
Department  which  inchnk's  any  topic  on  this  subject,  from 
the  way  of  detecting  tuberculosis  to  the  hints  for  a  projierly 
balanced  diet.  Health  is  an  important  topic,  and  matei'ial 
which  makes  it  vital  has  its  j)lace  in  a  shop  pajxT. 

Advertising  Columns.  —  The  pajxT  nuist  be  imcresting, 
but  it  can  also  l)e  liel])ful  to  employes.  The  Cioodyoar 
Tire  and  Kubl)er  Company  start (>d  a  "  getting  acquainted  " 
campaign.'''''  Lost  and  Found  and  For  Sale  columns  appear 
in  a  number  of  shop  ornai-s.  The  H(>public  Motor  Truck 
Company  has  worked  •  ut   well.     At   the  head  of  their 

"  want  ad  "  colimm  is  ]  .,,(,,1,  "  Tli(>re  will  be  no  charge  for 
these,  but  on  account  of  limited  si)ace  we  will  |iul)!ish  them 
two  tim(\s  only,  unless  notified  to  continue."  "^ 

Inspirational  Material. — The  "  inspiralion.al  "  material 
appearing  in  plant  iiajuM's  is  of  two  kinds  —  (a)  (hat  which 
urges  employes  to  i'orge  ahead  by  sfiriing  their  ambitions, 
and  (h)  that  which  praises  the  "  good  old  faithful  emph-ye." 
An  ex.ample  of  the  formei'  is  a  cartoon  of  a  man  carving  liim- 
;H'lf  out  of  a  block  of  marble,  printol  in  one  plant  paper 
and  immediately  copied  in  many  others.  The  latter  is  il- 
lustrated by  the  shop  pap(  r  of  the  Cireenfield  Tap  and  Die 
Company,  which  prints  in  each  issue  a  biogra|)hy  of  one 
worker  who  has  been  in  the  cn.ploN'  of  tli(>  concern  for  a 
long  time.  'I'he  column  is  headed,  "  'I'hesc  men  a.c  our  old 
guard.     Tluy  arc  the  backbone  of  industry."  ''■' 

Reporters  in  Plant  Collect  Plant  News.  Heal  plint  news, 
including  items  on  -peciid  activities,  the  various  services 
provided  for  the  emplo\es,  and  tactful  |)<>r.sonals  .are  im- 
portant uigredicnts  of  a  plant  |)a|)er  if  they  can  bo  made 


EDUCATION  109 

interesting  to  a  suffiricMitly  larso  number  of  employes.  The 
phin  of  making  different  woi-kers  reporters  in  the  various 
(iep.iitmeiUs  of  th(>  eoneern  is  one  of  tne  ways  of  getting 
hold  of  real  plant  ncnvs.  In  the  W(>st(Mn  CloVk  foinpany 
a  foreman  of  each  (iei)artiiicii(  appoints  a  worker  to  gather 
news  for  three  iiK.ntlis.  At  the  end  of  (hut  time  ho  is  thanked 
officially  hy  the  editor/'''' 

_  Form  and  Cost.  —  There  is  a  great  variety  in  the  form  and 
size  of  plant  organs.     Some  papers  are  full  blanket  sheets 
others  are  of  a  siz(>  to  he  put  into  a  coat  porkvt.     The  con- 
venient size  is  that  of  five  by  eight  inches.     Good  printing 
IS  an  invaluable  asset.     Calendered  paper  should  be  used. 
Make-up   should    be   carefully   considered.     DifTerent   sizes 
of  type  can  be  us(>d  f,,,-  special  hea<hngs,  thus  adding  to  the 
attractiveness  of  t  h(>  periodical.    Th(<  cost  of  printing  one  plant 
paper  about  seven  by  ten  inches  in  size,  pu})lished  monthly 
for  aboi!     l,-)()0  employes  and  containing  a  number  of  cuts 
nud  half  tones,  was  givn  in  Mnwh.  1010,  as  averaging  about 
?10()0  a  year.  '     One  company  publishes  a  magazine  witli  a 
circulation  of  'M),0{)i)  copies  a  month  at  a  cost  .)f  atwut  eight 
cents  per  copy.  Another  concern  i.ssues ;?(),()()()  eopies  monthly, 
and  finds  that  the  annual  costs  are  divided  as  follows : 

J*""tinK $lf..-,SO.(i;i 

Distrihtitiori 412.'{  1 1 

^'^^'^riv^ Gf,4,'-,!o() 

Cover  ('oior  platea 1870. (Vi 

''^'^''''•''"« <»(i;{^4,^ 

riiotoKraphs S4r,.C,,s 

J'"*** irs.'-.^iK) 

Hi'iit  and  lioiiso  8orvi''o >;,S.'{  '2ri 

M)scfllaiit»()ii.f \!'tl'H)  TrO 

'^"^'^' f;$r,j.-),s.()«> 

This  company  also  finds  that  accurate  est  nvunling  on  its 
paper  helps  to  keep  down  expen^vs  ;,nd  results  in  greatest 
elliciency.** 


W/y 


no 


THE    HUMAN    FACTOR    IX    IXDUSTRY 


Frequency  of  Publication  and  Distribution.  —  Most  plant 
organs  are  monthly  publications,  as  editors  seem  to  find 
it  hard  to  get  out  weekly  issues.*^  Moreover,  it  may  he 
(juestionable  whether  with  more  fiXHjueiit  issues  tlie  elTect- 
iveness  may  not  he  decrease'd.  Special  editions  on  subjects 
of  imp(,rtance  are  of  value  to  maintain  interest.  The  I>.  V. 
Cloodrich  Company  published  a  special  fin>  prevention  is- 
sue."^ Distril)Ution  should  receive  careful  coiisidciat  ion. 
In  many  instances  tlie  paper  is  given  out  in  the  various  dc- 
paitments  of  the  plant.  S(jmetiincs  it  is  circulateil  at  the 
gates.  In  other  cases  notices  are  posted  stating  tliat  a  new 
edition  is  ready  and  may  he  had  on  request.  It  i^  impor- 
tant that  the  distribution  should  be  at  the  end  of  the  da}', 
so  that  the  pul)lication  will  b(>  taken  home  and  that  time 
will  not  be  lost  in  the  reading  and  discussing  of  it  during 
working  hours. •■'• 

Editors'  Qualifications.  -  It  is  impossible  to  lay  down 
hard  and  fast  rules  for  pl.nnt  organs.  Kach  concein  has  its 
own  particular  problems  and  ty])e  of  news.  T\\v  (>ditor 
is  always  the  important  factor  in  a  plant  periodical.  A 
good  editor  is  one  who  understands  the  business,  knows 
news  values  and  the  news])aper  game,  is  a  keen  sf\ident  of 
human  natun-.and  has  full  authoril '  in  his  own  field.  "  Plant 
Organs  ar(>  too  oftcm  (Hlited  for  the  e\ecuti\(>s  or  .at  the  em- 
{iloyes.  They  give  ihe  impression  of  exi)loiting  the  woikers 
for  th(>  benefit  of  the  (Miiployers."  •'■'  There  nmst  be  co- 
operation between  the  editor  and  th(>  readers,  so  th;it  the 
magazine  may  luvvt  all  the  nee(ls  of  the  workers.  Th(> 
plant  org.an  should  not  puiilish  matcTial  designed  \n  sliniu- 
lat(>  the  sales  force.  This  is  not  its  function  and  rightfully 
belongs  in  a  ."Separate  p;ipei'.  If  ihe  shop  i)aper  i-  to  be  I'e.'id 
and  read  wid'  '\-  il  mu-^t  conbiiii  only  news  of  ititer(>st  to  llie 
readers.  The  idr.d  paper,  loo,  is  dciuocr.it  ic  in  lis  appioach 
and  not  pati'iiialislic 


THAPTER    V 


WORKIXCi    HOURS 

Recent  Change  in  Attitude  toward  Length  of  Working  Day. 

—  The  ('nipl()y(>r  of  fifty  years  afro  l),.li,.v(Hl  that  industrial 
outr)Ut  varied  in  dinvt  ratio  to  the  length  of  the  working  day. 
Kach    liour  that  his   factory  was  worivinfr  meant  increased 
output.     Eaeh  hour  that  saw  his  factory  or  siioj)  empt  v,  or  liis 
employes  idle,  meant    to  him    lost  i)ro(hiction  without  any 
eomi)ensating  reduction  in  overhead  charges.     Manufacturers 
scoffed    at    Ira    Stewart    when    h(>    agitated    the  eight-hour 
workmg  day  during  and  after  the  Civil  War.     In  the  three 
years  following  19ir,,  however,  one  million  and  a  half  workers 
m  over  4000  estal.lishments  have  heen  put  on  the  eight-hour 
day,'  nearly  three  times  the  total  numt.er  so  employed  in 
V.m:-     Of  this  number  0;}.1,000  gained  the  eight-hour  day 
durmg    1017  'uid    the   first    six    motitlis   ,,f    lOls,    and    the 
numl)(>r    is  growing  daily.     Moreov(M-,   the   half-holiday  on 
Saturday    is    hecoming   general,    the   44-hour    week    is'  the 
standard  in   the  clothing  industry,   while  some  firms  have 
advanced  to  a  five-day  week  and  an  eight-hour  day  through- 
out   the  ye.ar,   a  schedule  which   is  also  r.,inmon   in  depart- 
ment stores  in  a  ninnher  of  cities  during  thesummei  months. 
Chief  witness  to  the  change  in  attitude  toward  the  desir.ahle 
length  .,f  the  working  period,  which  h;is  taken  i)lace  in  the 
last  f.'w  y.'ars,  is  that  part  of  th..  Treatv  of  Peace  proposed 
I'.v  the  Allies  in  1<)1<»,  in  whi.'h  the  .>ight-hn„r  day  and  forty- 
cight-hour  week,   uith   one  .'Oinpletc  day's   rest,"  is  accepted 
:.s  tin-  international  standard  for  all  industriallv  developed 
countries. 

Ill 


i 


112 


THE    JIUMAX    FACTOR    IX    IXDUSTHY 


Reasons  for  Change  in  Attitude.  —  Tho  recent  impetus 
Siveii  the  shorter  hours  moveiiietit  in  iufhistiy  is  (hie  to 
iieeuinulated  i'oree  from  tluee  souices  -  organized  labor, 
leiiishition,  and  a  r(>versal  in  the  attitude  of  employers  toward 
the  relation  hetwonn  houis  and  output.  The  threatened 
strike  of  tlie  I'ailroad  brotherhoods  in  the  Tnited  States  in 
19I(),  for  instance,  did  much  to  jjopularize  theeii>ht-hour  day, 
at  least  as  the  basis  of  comp(>nsation.  I.eirislation  lags 
somewhat  behind  orjianized  labor  in  the  iv.uulation  of  hours. 
Nevertheless,  forty-seven  States  in  the  T'nion  Iiave  some  sort 
of  legislation  limitinsi-  the  horns  of  labor;''  Federal  employes 
work  seven  hours  ;  the  lidvernment  war  conti'acts  stipulated 
the  ei-iht-hour  day,  and  the  National  War  Labor  Board 
acci^pted  the  sam(>  working  day  as  the  basis  of  compensation 
in  making  its  awards  in  dispu'es  duiing  the  war.  But  we 
still  find  various  lengths  of  wo:  king  jieriods  in  use,  differing 
with  the  industry  am!  fh(^  !(.(  dity.  Some  employes  work 
84  houi-s  a  week  and  others  only  40.  less  than  half  as 
long.  Realization  l)y  industiy  that  a  long  working  day 
does  not  mean  maximum  output,  in  fact  that  tlu;  reverse 
may  l>e  th(>  c;is(\  has  been  in  the  p.ast  and  will  continue  a 
potent  factor  m  th(>  reduction  of  hours.  In  the  last  analysis 
the  development  of  the  movement  for  the  shorter  working 
d.ay  will  depiMid  on  the  scientific  data  obtained  regarding  the 
relation  between  working  hours,  fatigue,  and  output. 


Taticve 

Fatigue  vs.  Efficiency.  —  latigue  means  a  "  diminished 
eai)acity  for  work,  which  is  the  result  of  pre\ious  work."  ' 
When  body  or  brain  is  at  work  certain  vital  elements  are  con- 
sumed from  the  cellular  tissue  and  what  remains  is  waste 
pi-oiluct.  If  this  waste  product  .aciannulates  too  rapidly 
to  be  l>urned  up  i)y  tlie  oxygen  c;u-ried  in  the  blood  or  other- 
wise eliminated,  the  .-ystem  becomes  clogged  and  i)oi.sone(l. 


WORKING    HOURS 


113 


Ro?:t  is  nofossary  to  mako  tho  body  asain  offortivo.  If  the 
strain  has  boon  too  groat  or  if  tho  rost  is  insufficient,  some 
of  tho  poison  remains  in  tho  body.  Tho  ofToots  are  then 
cunuilativo  and  tiio  inciiviihial  suffers  permanent  and  pro- 
gressive physieal  deterioration.  Thus  fatigue  affeets  work- 
ing effiei(>ncy  at  first,  and  later  healtli  itself.* 

Causes  of  Fatigue.  —  Effort  of  any  kind  results  in  tho  de- 
velopment of  th(^  poi.sons  of  fatigue.     Machine  production, 
hf)\vevor,  presents  a  series  of  special  factors  contri})uting  to 
fatigue.     Although  the  leiiglh  and  intensity  of  activity  are 
always  the  predominating  factors,  fatigue  may  be  hastened 
or  retarded  by  th.e  conditions  surrounding  tho  activity  and 
by  the  nature  of  the  work  and  the  typt;  of  worker.     "The 
problems    of  hidustrial    fatigue  are  primarily  and    almo.st 
wholly  problems  of  fatigue  in  tho  nervous  system  and  of  its 
direct  and  indirect  effects."  ■■     It  is  for  this  reason  that  tho 
physical  effort  dcmand(-d  of  tlie  worker  is  often  of  less  im- 
portance than  tho  speed,  monotony,  or  fixity  of  posture  in- 
volved  in  tho  performance  of  his  task.     Prolonged   hours, 
work  done  at   unusual   times,  such  as  overtime,  night,  or 
Sunday   work,   frcHiucntly    produce   an   amount    of    fatigue 
entirely    disproportionat(>    to    the    effort    expended    or    Uie 
quantity  of  output  produced.     Conditions  of  work  which  in- 
clude poor  lighting  or  ventilation,  noise  or  floor  vibrations, 
overcrowding  oi    ui;sinitary  conditions,  hasten  fatigue  and 
may  cause  it  even  where  hours  are  .^Iiort  and  work  light  and 
varied.     These  contril)uting  factors  must  not  be  ov.'riookofi 
in  analyzing  tlie  causes  of  fatigue  in  modei'u  industry. 

Causes  Inherent  in  Machine  Production.  —  Some  of  these 
factors  which  cau-^e  ttu'  poisonous  fatigue  toxins  to  .accu- 
mulate more  r.apidly  than  they  can  lie  thrown  off  are 
insep.arable     from     machine     piodiict  ion.     Speed     and     the 

♦Tho    Oxi^tl-,r,.    ..f    f;lti.MI,'    1MM-.(,I|S    ;,Il,l    Inxilis    is    tllO    llypiil  llr^is    upon 

ulurh  ,,v,.„t  .scioiitilic  iti\c.iim,ti(.us  uf  fatJKuo  arc  basfd,  iiithough  their 
fxi-tciirc  is  ridt  vet  umvcil. 
I 


ii» 


114 


THE   HUMAN   FACTOR    IX   INDUSTRY 


monotonous  repetition  of  the  same  operation  cannot  be 
easily  eliminated  in  the  makiiif?  of  hinf^es,  for  instance,  where 
a  woman  takes  a  half  formed  hinge  and  places  it  in  the  bend- 
ing m.achine  50  times  a  minute  or  30,000  times  in  n  ten- 
hour  day;  or  in  cutting  out  the  tops  of  tin  cans,  when  the 
lever  of  a  foot  press  is  worked  40  limes  a  minute;  or  in  a 
garment  factory  where  cru-  girl  has  to  watch  12  jumping 
needles  of  a  power  machine  at  one  time/  The  monotony 
of  such  operations  is  typical  of  countless  machine  processes. 
Even  where  the  process  is  not  complicated  enough  to  involve 
strained  attention,  if  the  speed  is  n^gulated  by  the  miichine, 
or  if  the  system  of  wages  s{)urs  to  a  dangerous  speeding-up, 
extreme  lassitude  and  loss  of  effort-power  in  the  worker  are 
usually  the  result.  The  fatiguing  elTect  of  such  forms  of 
work  can  be  corrected  in  part  by  t  ransferring  the  workc^rs  from 
one  operation  to  another,  eliminating  wast(^  motion,  sub- 
stituting electrical  control  for  liand  or  foot  pressure,  carefully 
selecting  the  best  a(lapt(Ml  work(-r,  changing  piece  wages  to 
time  wages,  providing  adjustal)le  s(>ats  and  foot  re.sts  and 
all  sanitary  conveniences,  and  installing  the  best  ligliting, 
heating  and  ventilating  systems.  With  monotonous  work 
it  is  the  length  of  tli(>  working  hours  and  th(>  frcciuency  of  the 
rest  period  which  count  in  the  reduction  of  undue  fatigue. 


IVlEAsrRE.S   OF    FATKiUE 

Various  Fatigue  Tests.  ~-  Thei(>  ar(^  various  ways  of  test- 
ing the  relation  between  fatigue  and  pi'oductivity  and  be- 
tween working  hours  and  fatigue.  Records  of  output,  the 
amount  of  machine  power  used,  spoiled  work,  .accidents, 
lost  time,  sickness  and  laboratory  test<  havi'  ,all  been  utilized. 

Amount  of  Output.  —  The  daily  amount  of  output  for  com- 
paratively long  jxaiods  gives  the  clearest  picture  of  the  elTect 
of  any  change  in  the  length  of  the  workitig  period  on  the 
efficiency  of  the  workers.     In  making  comp.arisons,  however-. 


i-im 


WORKING    HOURS 


II, 


variations  in  the  supply  of  power  or  raw  materials,  labor 
turnover,  the  amount  of  time  wasted  involuntarily,  ami 
chaiifres  in  work  incentives  and  in  methods  of  management 
must  all  he  eonsidered. 

Accident  Schedule.  -  Th<'  schedule  of  accidents  also  gives 
a  surprisin^dy  accurate  measurement  „f  the  progress  of 
fatigue.  The  Federation  of  Mastc-r  Cotton  Spinners' 
Associations  reported  that  out  of  1302  accidents  occurring  in 
that  mdustry,  only  7o  were  not  caused  by  fatigue.^  Similar 
conclusions  have  been  reached  by  the  various  state  com- 
nnssions  that  have  studied  industrial  accidents  in  this 
country.  If  the  mnnber  of  acci.lents  due  to  causes  other 
than  the  physical  condition  of  thi'  workers  be  assumed  to  be  a 
constant,  then  the  hourly,  daily  and  seasonal  variations  in 
accidents  may  be  attributed  to  the  decrease  in  the  workers' 
attentive  powers,  or  in  his  sensitivity  and  speed  of  reaction 
The  greatest  difficulty  in  using  accidents  as  a  measure  of 
fatigue  will  b(>  the  changing  speed  of  production.  The 
greater  the  output  the  more  freciuently  does  the  operator 
encounter  danger  in  the  manii)ulation  of  the  machinery 

Spoiled  Work.  -  Spoiled  work,  like  accidents,  results 
from  weakened  mu.scular  control,  inattention,  bad  judg- 
ment and  memory,  and  is  therefore  usually  traceable  directly 
to  fatigiKv  This  method  of  measuring  fatigue  has  unfor- 
tunately b,>en  ignored  in  the  recent  scientific  .studies  of 
industrial  fatigue. 

Sickness  and  Lost-Time  Records.  —  Sickne.^s  and  lost- 
time  records  are  next  in  value  in  measuring  fatigue.  The 
Pn.portion  of  lost  time  du.'  in  sickness  and  extreme  fatigue 
IS  freciuently  uiuh-rcstimated  and  that  due  to  mere  slack- 
n(>ss  ov(-restimated.  This  is  true  ('veii  where  doctors' 
absenc(>  excuses  are  accepted,  bcvause  tl,.-  worker  is  often 
"  too  tnvd  •'  to  go  to  work  and  not  sick  enough  to  see  a 
doctor.  TIu>  very  ".slackness"  of  which  (>mployers  com- 
'       • -'"-■^'  "-^^-^  ""•  ;i  "laun  s.uigu;uu,  wiiidi  has 


116 


THE    HUMAN    FACTOR    IX    INDUSTRY 


preventoil  actual  sickness  arnl  has  liccn  mafle  necessary  to 
the  eniploj-e  because  of  long  hours.  The  British  Association 
for  the  Advancement  of  Science,  in  their  invcstif^ation  of 
industrial  fatijiue,  found  suflicient  evidence  of  a  close  relation 
between  th(>  curves  of  lost  time  and  of  sickness  to  justify 
their  reliance  on  l)oth  in  tracing  the  progress  of  fatigue. 

Laboratory  Tests.  —  Laboratory  te.-vts  of  industrial  fatigue, 
sliowing  the  worker's  relative  acuity  of  heai'ing  and  vision 
at  the  bcgimiing  and  end  of  the  work  period  have  been 
api)licd  most  successfully  by  Professor  Kent,  woi'king  for 
the  Biitish  Home  Office.  Tliese  are  still  expei'imental,  but 
as  time  goes  on  refined  |)hy-iological  and  psychological  tests 
will  probably  he  called  into  general  use  to  determine  the 
desirable  length  of  woik  and  rest  periods  for  various  types 
of  work.  Their  application  involves  certain  difficulties, 
howev(>r.  The  tested  worker  will  Iways  l)e  curious  as  to 
the  results  of  the  experiment,  ani  ffore  the  laboratory 

experiment   will   not    reproduc(>   the   nori  'ate   of   mind 

during  work  or  normal  working  conditions.  the  present, 

the  output,  accident  and  lost -time  rates  give  us  reasonably 
ac'^..-;)te  -,)■(•*;'•('>  of  fatigue  and  its  cost  and  its  relation  to 
the  work  period. 


Economy  of  the  .'Shorter  Working  Day 

Early  Recognition  of  this  Economy.  —  Wherever  careful 
records  have  been  kept,  shorter  hours  have  dcMnonstrated 
tlieir  value  in  iiicn\ised  tdiciency.  In  ISKl,  Robeit  Owen 
testified  lo  a  I'ailiamentary  ("ommittee  investigating  the 
"State  of  'he  Childicn  llmpioyed  in  the  Maiuifactories 
of  the  I'liited  Kingdom,"  that  since  reducing  the  hours 
from  11 5  to  10,'  a  day,  he  iiad  lost  not  more  than  one 
farthing  in  twenty  pence  in  the  fiist  three  months,  and  that 
he  was  confident   that  before  the  year  was  over  this  slight 


WORKIXO    HOURS 


117 


inado  without  any  nlteration  or  spccdinfr  up  of  tho  machinery, 
and  the  increased  output  per  opeiat  ive  per  hour  came  solely  — 

from  savin-  l.r.'akai^'c,  from  the  su[)orior  attention  of  the  people 
to  all  their  operations,  from  not  losiiv,'  a  niouieiif  when  the  \v(,rk 
eomniei.ces  or  when  it  ceases,  and  from  the  individuals  in  the  pre- 
vious process  paying  much  more  attention  to  the  pre|)aratory  stages 
."  the  liianufacture. 

And  these  imri..vements  resulted  in  turn  from — 

the  increased  strenpth  and  activity  :ind  improved  spirits  of  the 
individuals,  in  consequence  of  being  employed  a  shorter  time  in  the 
day.  8 

With  the  modern  specialization  of  labor  and  the  increased 
use  of  machinery,  Tatigue  would  seem  to  have  comparatively 
small  effect  on  output.  The  motions  re(iuired  of  the  worker 
are  so  mechanical  and  involve  so  little  effort  that  in  .some 
work  an  operator  performs  his  fuiudion  adeciuately  when 
appareidly  half  asle<'p.  Rut  the  following  quotation  from  a 
repoi't  of  the  British  Health  of  Munitions  Workers  C'om- 
nnttee  indicates  the  danger  of  such  a  conclusion: 

Cursory  observation  of  the  youths  boring  top  caps  would  suggest 
that  by  no  possibility  could  they  increase  their  hourly  out |)ut,  how- 
ever short  their  hours  of  work,  but  the  data  adduced  show  that 
this  \lew  is  erroneous,  and  that  a  more  p<Tsist<wit  and  continuous 
application  to  their  machines  could  elTect  an  improvement  of 
L".t  |)cr  cent  or  more.' 

Modem  Evidence  of  this  Economy.  —  Modern  evidence 
of  the  superior  productivity  of  the  nine-hour  over  <he  ten- 
hour  day  and  the  r'igjit-hour  over  the  nine-hour  day,  is  fast 
accumulating.  .\11  such  evidence,  however,  varies  with  the 
i.idustry,  the  process  and  the  individual  workers  concerned. 

Output.  -  The  experiment  in  reducing  JKjurs  in  the  Zeiss 
optical  goods  factory  in  Jena,  (lermany,  is  w<dl  known. 
In  1899  hours  were  reduced  froiti  nine  to  eight,  while  the  out- 
put  i,ei   hour  ii       Msed   it)  per  cent,  and  the  total  output, 


118 


THK    HUMAN'    FA(^T()F{    [X    INDUSTRY 


3  per  ('(Mit,  ail  (Miuivalcnt  of  ten  days'  extra  work  during  the 
year  for  each  tuaii.'" 

In  I^creinlHT,  lOUi,  Fayet'.e  H.  I'lumh,  Inc.,  reduced 
their  workiiijr  week  from  571  to  o2',  hours,  and  at  the  same 
time  raised  theii-  wa^c  rates.  The  weekly  i)roduction  in 
one  of  the  worst  dei)artments  increased  IS. 4  per  cent  and  in 
the  entire  plant,  10.0  per  cent."  A  shoe  company,  having 
over  4000  employes,  !),")  per  cent  of  whom  were  paid  a  .stand- 
ardized piecework  wage,  without  making  any  changes  in 
methods  of  production,  in  management,  or  in  machinery, 
obtained  the  following  results  by  reducing  their  hours  frora 
55  a  week  to  52 :  '- 

PHODtlTIVITT    I'nIT    PEH    DaT 
PEK    IiMPl.()YF.    HaBED    ON 

Pairs  .SaiPPED 

October  and  Xovemhor,  lOlG 

(W'orkiny;  r}')  hours) ^^iji 

Dt'<'finhcr.  lOIC,  and  January,  1917 

(Workiuf,'  .")2  hours) 9  qq 

February  and  Marcli,  l!tl7 

(.Workinij  '>'2  hours) ij_()2 

The  ("lev(4an(i  i.ardware  Company  m  1915,  instead  of 
adding  overtime  during  the  bu.sy  season,  continued  their 
usual  nine-hour  schedule  and,  to  the  suri)ris(>  of  MH>ri  and 
foreman,  th.it  year  was  the  lartjest  [jroductive  one  in  their 
history.  In  the  next  l.us^'  season,  instead  of  working 
overt  ill  ,  hours  were  reduced  to  eight,  and  still  |)roduction 
increased.  In  the  wint.  r  of  I!>1(1  1017.  work  accuuudatetl 
during  the  installation  of  new  m.arhinery  and  the  men  vol- 
unlecred  to  cle.ar  it  up  by  workiiiu  temponirily  in  two 
sliifts  of  .-^ix  hours  i>a(  li.  I^acii  ti'.am  turned  out  almost  a.s 
much  as  tlicy  iiad  befoie  i!i  eight  hours.  Tlie  men  la»er 
asked  to  return  to  the  eight-hour  s(hedul(\  fearing  that  the 
slight  decrease  in  productivity  and  in  tiieir  pi-cework  wages 
would  not  be  ov.'.vome.-'  We  r.nmot  know  whether  the  good 
effects  of  the  si.\-l,our  day   would  have  hnally   resulted   in 


WORKING    HOURS 


119 


equal  or  iinprovod  productivity,  hut  tlio  experiment  certainly 
indicated  th;it  somewhat  loss  than  eit^ht  hours  was  the  maxi- 
mum productive'  working  day  for  the  kind  of  work  involved. 

Other  interesting  evidence  of  the  advantages  of  shortened 
working  hours  comes  from  the  Sol, ay  Process  Company  of 
Syracuse.  In  1892  they  installe.l  three  eight-hour  shifts  in 
place  of  two  previous  shifts  of  t«icven  and  tlurte(>n  hours. 
In  1900  the  president  of  the  company  said  that  the  initial 
increased  cott  per  imit  of  production  was  more  than  over- 
come within  a  year's  time.'^  Mention  has  been  made  of  the 
successful  experiment  of  Jo.seph  and  Feiss  Company  in 
establishing  a  lO-hour  week.  The  Ford  IMotor  Company  and 
the  Commonwealth  Sieel  Comi^anv  also  afford  examples  of 
the  economic  value  of  the  shortened  working  day. 

The  National  Itidustrial  Conference  Board  concluded  a 
study  of  413  metal  manufacturing  establishments  which 
had  reduced  hours  bctweci.  1917  and  1919  with  the  state- 
ment that'*  — 

(1)  .\  rjO  hour  woek  has  proved  otTicicnt  inil  practicable  in  a 
l;irKe  numhcr  of  metal  maniifaetiirinj;:  estaljluihtiients. 

(2)  A  4S-hour  wo»'k  has  proved  practicable  in  a  considerable 
number  of  establishments. 

The  reports  of  the  British  Health  of  Munitions  Workers 
Conunitt(>e  contain  many  d(>tail(>d  dat.i  oti  the  n^lation 
b'tvveen  output  and  hours.  Thus,  100  women  turning 
fuse  bodies,  a  delicate  proc(>ss  performed  standing  and  de- 
manding close  attention,  give  the  following  record.''     With 


A 

(■TI»L   II'THM 
I'f.K  Wf  f.K 

llnl-HH  OK 

OiTpn  irii 

WtKK 

WiiKu  .Ml  i.ri. 
l'I,i^:r>  uj 
Hki.a  rivi 
Output 

<>  w»H>ks  aveffuye 
H  w«><'ks  average 

59.7 

4«1 

100 

I'ia 

f.SJO 
7^43 

3 


J 


120  Till-:    HUMAN    KACroiJ    IX    IXIH:.STliY 


a  n>(liicti(>ri  of  8..")  liours  ;i  wock,  lost  tiiiu^  was  (h^croasod 
31  per  ((Mil,  relative  (lutput  increased  Zi  i  cent,  and  the 
total  output   increased  S  per  cent. 

In  consideiinii  these  hours  it  should  \>"  home  in  mind  that 
tli(\v  refei-  to  early  days  of  the  \\\\v  when  I'aijiiand  souiiht  to 
secure  ina\i;iiuni  output  of  munitions  liy  leiiirtheninjj;  tlie 
work-day.  The  lowei(  d  output  per  worker  in  th<>  <econd 
year  of  tlie  war  -the  fact  that  loni:;  liou!-  had  failed  to 
maintain  pi'oduction  even  where  the  workeis  were  .■^tiilUl- 
lated  l>y  patriotic  ze:d,  leil  to  the  appointment  of  the  com- 
mittee. It  was  found,  moi'covei',  that  lioiniy  output  was 
loss  oven  at  the  ix'iiiimin^  of  eai'h  workiiiii  |)eriod.  a  f.act 
accounted  foi'  hy  the  anxiety  of  liie  e;nploy<>s  to  save  them- 
selves from  the  -tiain  of  the  lonn;  workday.  A  ^mup  of 
twetit\--se\-en  men  oti  the  heavy  work  of  si/.in^  fu'^e  I)odies, 
in  a  reduction  of  hours  from  •>!..")  to  .').").!  a  week,  increased 
their  hourly  output  22  per  cent  and  their  total  output  1(1 
per  cent.'' 

The  commiltee  recdiiuiiended  a  reduci  inn  finm  the  ])rev.i- 
l(Mit  week  ol  from  >eventy  to  eiiihly  honr-^  ;itid  more,  to  he- 
(wceii  fifty-six  ami  sevent\-  hours,  varxinii;  v.iih  tlie  type  of 
woi'k  and  the  .aue  .and  -.'X  of  the  worker.  Hut  e\-en  these 
shol'ter  hours  were  held  Id  he  too  loULJ  fol'  times  of  pe.ace 
and  could  lie  applieti  only  to  the  stroiive.-t  woikei-s  durinjr 
theemerueney  of  w.ar.  The  <'omnnl  tee  was  .avoweilly  taking 
;i  "shoit  ;ind  not  a  lonii  \iew,"  It  was  inteiested  solel\-  in 
maximtim  output  of  munitions  durinii;  the  war,  ;md  its  re- 
seal'ch  tiierefore  doe^  not  indicate  the  hour-  •■ondu(l\e  ti) 
m.'ixiimnn  product  i\ily  o\cr  :i  period  of  yeais,  ImiI  it  in- 
dicates tie\-ertheless  the  rel.ition  lietween  lioin^  ,ind  out- 
put. 

Accidents  further  (e.-timony  to  the  \.du<'  of  the 
sliorter  work  day  aic  the  .Haident  and  heilih  records. 
In  one  liiiiilish  nnmilioiis  factory,  in  iiie  .aiiiunm  of  MM  J, 
when  (he  iioitrs  were  nine  ;i  day,  an  riverage  of  100  lirst-uid 


WORKFXd    HOURS 


121 


drossinjrs  por  1000  cniploycd  wnv  ii,:h1('  oarli  monlh,  whil, 
ill  the  autumn  of  I'Jl."),  ulicii  Inmr,-  hail  1 
;i  (lay.   the  average  nisc   t(i  'i'.l'J.  '     T 


H'l  II  raised  to  (Mcxcn 


ic  tuiii   licld  the   iiioi( 


11 

r(>sp<)iisil.|(>  for  this   192  per  cent  iiicivasc.     rnfortuiiatclv 


loroufiii    oro;aiii>;ati()ii    of   first-ai.|    tivatiiicnt    only    part 


\' 


low  the  usual  ininilicr 


American  acciilcnt  >iatisti(s  do  not  si 
of  hours  worked  hy  the  person  injured.  Kecords  of  individ- 
ual plants  do  throw  li^ht  on  the  suliject,  lait  are  not  availaljle 
for  jiuhlication. 

Sickness.  -     Loiil^  hours  .ar<"  also   condiieive   to  sickness 


and  absenteeism.      When   the  Solvav   Process   ( 


Diiipany    of 


IV: 


S;Tacus(>  introdiic'Ml  three  shifts  instead  of  two,  the  time 
lost  per  man  per  ye.ir  frradually  fell  from  7'  d.ays  to.")',  d; 
The  immediate  result  of  lorm  houiv,  oveitime.  and  nijiht 
work  amoiifi;  one  fj;roup  of  Hrilish  munitions  workers  was  a 
rise  in  the  percentage  of  sickness  from  "J.!*  in  .lulv,  MM  1 
and  2.1  in  Deceml.er,  101  1,  to  }.()  in  the  fiivt  (lu.aiterOf  lOl."). 
Durinj:;   the  same   period   the  accident 


I 


r.ate  aNo   iniae.asei 


n  one  d(  jiartiii-nt  emi)loyinH;  iieailv    KKK)  men.  tl 

.11 


le  sickness 
le  medical  officer  of  tiie  works 


rate  n-ached  S  per  cent.  Th 
attributed  this  incn  ase  in  part  to  the  introduction  of  new 
and  inexpeiienced  employes,  but  held  th;.  fil'ir.n-liour  d.ay 
largely  responsible.  In  .another  Lir-e  I'.iciury  thoickness  rate 
ii.ad  ris.'ii  to  I  p.  r  cent  and  w,is  >till  ri-iiiL:,  uliile  in  a  thir<l  it 
had  reached  7  per  (cnt   ' 

The  relation  bi  i  ween  he.dth  .and 
ciited  by  the  record  of  the  .sick  benefit  fund  cf  the  Insti 
tiite  Solv.iy  of  BcIlmuiii.  Mi-.  IVomoiit  inlro<luced  th 
eiuht-hour  d.ay  in  pl.ici'  of  the  former  t welve-hoi;r  d; 
in     ISiM),    because    he    him>clf     h.ad    noticed    the    exh.austed 


lours   is    indi- 


IV 


(lilion   of    his    employes.      !'"roni    ;i    delirii   of    7()()  f 


r.incs 


in    iSS'.l  the  fimd  showed   .a  ste.idil 


y  (irowinu  bal.ince  until 


in    1901,    with    praclicilly    the    s.mie    numbrT    of    mr-mlKT 
(here  was  .a    b.alance  of  -oine  .'V'.OO  franc-. 


tii'calile  droiis  in   (In- fun. 1  balance  foi  ll 


I  llel'c  wcic    no- 
le  v.'ars  181).'),  I'tOO, 


J        ' 


122 


THE    HUMAX    FACTO"    IX    IXDUSTRY 


and   19(  .f  to  uniLsual  and  .serious   c'pidoInk■^  of    influ- 

enza.''' 

.\  similar  >i liking  cxpcrieiiee  is  recorded  hy  the  Knpis 
Cheiiiical  Works  near  I.iege.  Tiie  nianaueinenf  lu'canie 
alarnu'd  i)e(;ui.se  the  conipany's  sick  heiieflt  fund  was  being 
constantly  (iopleted,  aiitl  tried  the  experiment  of  introducing 
three  eiglit-hour  shifts  for  ten-liour  stiifts,  heliin-ing  that 
long  hours  were  partly  i-espon>ilil('  for  the  high  sickness  rate. 
The  output  and  the  piecework  earnings  remained  the  same, 
tlie  hourly  output  and  earnings  incre^ising  about  ;53  per  cent. 
Instead  of  a  continuous  deficit  the  sick  benefit  accumu- 
lated a  growing  surplus."' 


Night  Work 

Night  Work  in  Disfavor.  Although  methods  of  illumina- 
tion have  iinpr(jved  markedl\  in  the  past  few  years,  there 
is  comparatively  little  night  work  done.  Even  the  offer  of 
bonuses  and  special  privileges  does  not  ordinarily  bring  forth 
an  ade(]uate  number  of  applicants.  Most  industries  report 
difficulty  in  tilling  th(>ir  night-shifts.  Not  only  is  this  true, 
but  there  is  a  growing  universal  (jpposition  to  night  work, 
especially  for  women,  as  a  inenace  to  national  health.  At  a 
conference  called  by  the  .'<wiss  l'"ederal  Council  in  Berne, 
I'JU),  an  international  agicem'ut  to  prohibit  night  work 
for  women  was  signed  by  fourteen  European  countries,  and 
eight  of  the  States  of  this  country  have  since  pa.s.sed  corre- 
sponding legislation. '^  Som(>  night  work,  notably  in  public 
utilities  and  in  the  handling  of  food,  will  prol)aIi!y  .always  be 
necessary.  Its  use,  however,  should  be  strictly  limited  and 
the  amount  t\f  night   work  rcduicd  to  ;i  minimum. 

Difficulties  of  Night  Work.  The  fundanu  ntal  objection 
tc»  night  work  is  that  sound  restful  sleej),  which  is  essential 
to  physical  eHiciency,  cannot  l)e  .secured  during  the  day. 
The  activity  of  other  members  of  the  fanuly  and  street 
noises  make  thijs  ahuost  impossible.     Night  work  iuterferea 


WORKIXG    HOURS 


123 


with  normal  human  relationships.  It  is  of  course  conceivable 
that  a  complptp  inversion  of  day  an.l  night  habits  could  be 
made.  This  was  accomplished  successfully  by  the  Danish 
Arctic  Expedition  of  190«)-1908,  to  the  extent  that  even 
the  ordinary  temperature  cycle  of  the  body,  hi^di  in  the  late 
afternoon,  low  in  the  early  morning,  accommodated  itself  to 
the  change.'^  But  the  night  worker  is  tempi (m1  to  burn 
the  candle  at  both  ends,  i)laying  by  d,.,^  and  working  by 
night,  snatching  a  litt'e  sleep  intennittcnMy  through  the  day 
and  remaining  .Irowsily  awake  through  the  night.  Som(>  of 
the  injurious  etTects  are  not  apparent  for  a  long  perio<l,  but 
there  is  abundant  evidence,  nevertheless,  that  night  work  is 
uneconomical,  industrially  as  well  ;us  socially. 

Output.  —  Night   work   means  not  o'lly  physically  inef- 
ficient workers,  but  artificial  l?  diting  makes  the  work  difli- 
cult,  supervision  is  usually  unsatisfactory  and  the  macliinery 
suffers  from  inces.sant  use  and  from  the  change  of  workers- 
The  British  (V)mmittce   foun.l  a  group  of  nim<  night-shift 
workmen  in  a  rmmitions  factory  whose  output  was   14  per 
cent  less,  over  a  pc^riod  of   four  wveks.  than   that  of  nine 
day-shift  workmen  engaged  in  the  sani(>  process  in  the  same 
factory;   twelve  women  emi)loyed  on  continuous  night  work 
for  twelve  weeks,  who  dm-ing  that  time  gave  a  mean  output 
11   per  cent   below  th;il  of  ;i  ten-week  period  of  alternating 
night  work;    .uid  many  similar  instances.     There  were  also 
signs   of   a    i)rogressiv(>    deierioration    in    efficiency    among 
night   workers  as  comiiared  with  d.iy  workers.     The  Com- 
mittee   concluded    that    a    continuous    night-shift     f,-ave    a 
ilcfinitely  less  output   than  a   continuous  day-shift.      Tn(>y 
failed    („   ohfain   evidence    th;it    tli.'   mvater  "out[.iit    of   the 
conlinu.Mis  <lay-shift    balanc(<l    tl.is   inlVriurity.     Th.Tcfore 
when>  night  woik  was  tiec<>ssary.  the  discontinuous  system 
w;is  found  more  prnductive  than  the  continuous  one."* 

Accidents.  -    .Xccidents  are  of  comparatively  little  value 
in  mea^suring  the  effects  of  night  work.     Those  cho.seu  for 


^ 


124  Till-:    HUMAN    FACTOR    IX    INDUSTRY 


nip;ht  work  are  usually  ol'  superior  phvsifiu(>,  ami  at  iii^ht 
there  is  less  crowdiiii:  and  li'ss  tralfic  ui  the  factory,  due  to 
the  shippiuji  of  niatcrials  and  sui)plics.  Tlic  accident  frc- 
(iuciic\-  lias,  (hcrrfore,  been  found  to  i)e  sli,t;htly  less  by 
nijiht  than  by  day. 

Sickness.  -  Sickness  statistics  arc  inoi'c  illuniinalins. 
The  factory  reports  of  .\lsa<-e-Loi  r.aine  cite  tlie  case  of  a 
cutlon  niill  wliich  introduced  a  permanent  ni^.n-work  shift 
1  JSS'J  and  loiuid  that  in  one  vcai',  foi'  every  lO'H) 
wdiMcn  in  the  day-shift  there  were  .")!()  cases  of  illness 
and  .")2S()  days  lost,  while  auionu,  the  <lay  and  niiiht-shift 
foi'ce    the    cases    (if    illin'sv    were    ()2.")    and 


!('    (lav: 


lost, 

9i;}()."  The  I'inni^h  Senate  in  I'.tO'.)  ordered  an  inves- 
tigation (if  women  iiiiiht  workeis  atid  fnund  that  anions 
2()."')'.t    en^aued     in    work    of    various    kinds,    ;j.").2    pc'    cent 


sulTc'cd  from  jjcneial  nervous  weakness.  Only  H.l  per  cent 
managed  t(i  siccj)  much  UKire  than  five  hours  ;i  day,  while 
ai.I    per 


ccin    slept    less  than  that.-'' 

Three  ei^iit-hour  shifts,  in  place  <if  two  shifts,  increase 
outpal  by  benelitin^  the  worker-  physically  .and  by  rc(lucinu; 
the  time  during  which  machinery  mu>t  >tand  idle  v>hi!e  the 
woikers  haxc  theii'  meals. 

Professor  Kent's  test-  in  1!»1()  substantiated  these  con- 
clusions,  and  showed   ii>  .addilinn  that    beca 


necess;irv 


for   t 


le   adnistment 


use  ol     ne  time 
lily   temperatures   and 


work   I-  too  ti'C' 


li.ibits,  a  weekly  shift  from  day  to  ni^ht 
(|Uent.  He  discovered  that  while  fatigue  .always  develope(l 
more  (|uickly  by  nielli  than  by  da\-.  I  lie  dcveiopment  dur- 
int;  the  nijilit  was  le-s  .at  the  end  th.an  ;it  the  bciiimiinn  of 
the  week's  work.  He  sunniest ed  that  a  monthly  shift  is  more 
luLipted  to  the  need  of  the  workers.-' 


W()F{KIX(;    HOURS 


125 


( )\EriTI.ME 

Overtime  Expensive.  —  Of  the  stato  l.nvs  in  this  country 
rofiulatin^  hdurs  of  work,  only  one  tiiini   f)crinit   overtime 
for  any  reason,  and  these  only  to  a  limited  extent  in  an  emer- 
Rcney  or  for  sp(>cial  reasons,''     The  object  ions  to  all  over- 
time vork  made  hy  the  Hrilidi  Conunittee  were  that  (1)   t!i(> 
s(>vere  strain  on   tlie  niana.iiemenf ,  executive  stafT,   foremen 
and  workei's  adversely  affected  iiuantity  and  ([uality  in  out- 
put, and  that  (2)   it  entailed  a  lary;e  amount  of  lo^t  time  due 
larfrely  to  sickness  and  partly  to  slackness  on  the  emi)loye's 
[lart  in  normal  workinsj;  hours  in  order  to  |)rolonji  the  nec(>s- 
sary  overtime  with  its  extni  i)ay.      In  one  department  of  a 
British   rmmitions  factory,  when-   ISO    unusually    keen    and 
steady  men  were  ;it    woi'k,  averayinji  :V.)  yeai's  of  a^e,  con- 
tinuous overtime  rai-ed  the  i)ei-centajz:e  ratio  of  lost  time  from 
:il  of  the  gross  normal  hours  in  ,Iune,  li)!,"),  to  S.I  in  June, 
lOlC).      In  another  department  wiiere  over  :?()()  men  were  on 
heavy  woik  the  same  ratio  increased  from  X.2  in  ,!une,  KM."), 
to  (».I   in  .luiie,  I91().'^     And.  vice  vers.a,  a  reduction  in  over- 
time has  been  found  to  h;iv(>  a  dis|iroportionate  efTect  on  the 
reduction  of  lost  time. 

Restrictions  on  Use  of  Overtime. — The  executive  of  a 
larfje  American  shoe  eomiKuiy  employing  }()()()  men  has 
declared  overtime  to  be  advisable  only  fl)  to  offset  br(>aks 
in  continuous  production,  (2)  where  only  ;i  small  munber  of 
em.ploycs  are  .affected,  and  C^)  for  short  periods.'-'  In 
geruM-al  .all  of  the  objections  made  to  th(>  retrular  lotia;  work- 
ing day  may  be  m.ade  to  overtime  with  the  additional  fact 
to  consider,  that  overtime  means  extra  pay. 

SUND.W    WoUK 

Sunday  Work  as  Expensive  as  Other  Overtime.  —  The 

difhculties  invdixcd   in   Sund.iy  woik  are  the  s.ame  ;is  witli 
other  overtime   work.     Supervision   i.s  less  eHicient,   higher 


i  ij 


126 


THE    HUMAN    FACTOR    IX    INDUSTRY 


rates  of  pay  iiuToaso  the  cost  of  running  the  plant,  and  work 
outskie  of  the  custoniary  horn's  of  work  in  the  oommunitj' 
leads  to  "  soldiering  "  and  loafing,  Ikhviuso  tlio  workor  is  in 
a  different  frame  of  n  !nd  than  ni  ordinary  times.  He  feels 
in  a  holiday  mood  and  is  not  inelineil  to  take  his  work  as 
seriously.  Moreover,  though  attendance  is  apt  to  lie  good 
on  Sundays,  when  th(M-e  is  extra  compensation,  it  results  in 
bad  attendance  records  during  the  week.'** 

Importance  of  One  Day's  Rest  a  Week.  —  English  ex- 
perience led  the  British  Committee  to  conclude  that  one 
day's  r(>st  in  seven,  preferably  on  Sunday,  was  more  essential 
in  maintaining  the  health  and  morale  of  the  working  force 
than  any  sliortening  of  tlie  regular  work  day.'" 

Output  Lowered.  —  Working  on  Sunday  at  a  rifle  car- 
fridge-making  factory  was  shown  to  afTect  adversely  the  rate 
of  output.  The  weekly  output  after  a  Sunday  holiday 
was  compared  to  that  in  the  weeks  before  and  after,  when 
Sunday  was  worked  in  full.  The  results  showed  a  higher 
rate  per  machine  per  hoiir  in  the  week  following  a  Sunday 
holiday.'" 

Sickness  Increased.  —  Another  striking  example  of  the 
delet(M'i()us  ctTect  of  Sunday  work  is  givcMi  in  the  case  of  a 
factory  where,  in  the  sprint:.  Smiday  overtime  was  the  rule, 
and  at  one  time  22  per  cent  of  tlie  men  were  ill.  In  August, 
when  Sunday  work  was  greatly  reduced,  although  week-day 
overtiuH^  continue(i  heavy,  only  a  trifle  over  ,  ^wr  cent 
\ver(>  ill.  The  spring  had  not  been  an  abnormally  unhealthy 
one,  so  this  great  reduction  could  lie  attributed  only  in  part 
to  the  season.'" 


The  Workinc;  Period 
Shorter   Work   Day    vs.  Rest  Periods. 


There  are  two 


opposmg  t"niifii(ics  in  ihi'  shorter  hours  movement.  One 
is  to  <livide  the  working  day  inio  sev(>ral  parts  by  inserting 
rest  periods  and  lengthening  the  iuiuh  hour,  and  the  other  is 


WORKIXG    HOURS 


127 


to  compress  the  workin-  ,lay  into  fewer  liours  by  eliminating 
rest  periods.     In  some  States  legislation  is  beginning  to  re- 
quire a  forty-five  minute  or  one  hour  lunch  p<-rio(l  in  certain 
occupations   and    for   certain    classes   of    workers.     On    the 
other  han<l,  as   in   the  case  of  the  I-ord   M.,tor  Company 
substitutmg  three  eight-hour  shifts  for  two  shifts  has  meant 
m  many  factories  that  the  employes  are  given  time  for  only 
a  pick-up  sandwich  lunch.     Lord  Lev(!rhulme,  owner  of  the 
Port  Sunlight  Soap  Works,  has  recently  pronouruTd  him- 
self m  favor  of  a  six-hour  work  day  for  ail  employee,  worked 
m  two,  three,  or  four  shifts,  without  interrruption  for  meals.22 
To  decide  which  course  to  i)ursue  it  is  necessary  to  trace 
the  progress  of  fatigue  in  the  workers  during  the  day  and  to 
determine  the  effect  which  rest   {.ericxls  have  in  lessening 
fatigue. 

Little  Variation  in  Fatigue  during  the  Year,  Week,  or  Day. 

— -The^Rriti.sh  Association  for  the  Advancement  of  Science 
in  1915  carried  out  an  extensive  investigation  of  the  rela- 
tion between  the  period  of  work,  fatigue,  and  acci.l(.nts.' 
They  found  the  universal  experience  to  be  that  the  progress 
of  fatigue  varied  little  between  one  we(>k  of  the  year  and 
another,  between  one  day  of  the  week  and  another,  or  be- 
tween morning  an<l  afternoon.  But  there  was  a  great 
difference  in  the  fatigued  condition  of  tlu'  worker  during 
the  first  hour  anil  the  third  or  fourth  hour  of  morning  work. 
This  variation  repeated  itself  in  the  afternoon  working 
period. 

Reasons  for  This  Absence  of  Variation.  — Vacations  are 

still  too  negligible  a  factor  in  industry  to  show  any  effect 
on  the  wage  earners'  efficiency  during  the  year.  The  evi- 
dence of  weekly  fatigue  is  confused  by  marked  variations  in 
different  localities  and  countries,  due  to  the  different  week- 
end habits  of  the  workers  in  reg.ard  to  Ix.tli  drinkuig  ar.d 
recreation.  In  American  industries  tlierr  is  often  a  sur- 
p::.-::;^  ;;;;;;;  in  emvicnv^    wii    .vlonday.   wiucii  is  Variously 


1 

1 

J 

128 


Tin;    [UMV\    FACTOU    IN    IXDUSTRY 


atliilnit;vl  to  wrck-ciul  (li-^-ip;it  ion,  or  to  ;i  loss  of  practice 
in  iiiuiiipiilatiiig  tiir  tools  or  iiuicliiiui\ ,  nuil  a  iioii-ailjust- 
mciit  to  I  lie  I'liytliins  of  woik.  Moicovcr,  cHicicncy  rises  on 
Saturdays,  prohiiMy  hccausc  of  the  stimuliis  of  anticipating? 
the  cominsi  lioliilay.  Thus  the  ( )hio  Industrial  ("onunission 
for  1914  found  accidents  involvin'ji;  disability  for  ono  day  or 
more  to  occur  in  dit'ferent  industries  as  follows: 


(  'ONTKACTINO 
(MUILUINO) 

Metals 

COACHE.S 

229 

<  VlAl. 
MlNlNcl 

Viivty.ny 
Clah.s 

ISDISTKY 
INJTAI, 

Monday 

321 

2.268 

204 

177 

4.032 

Tuesdav 

■2m 

2.22t 

>1  t 

I'.M 

l'.»9 

4..VJ2 

Wt'diicsdav 

2,S,S 

2.187 

2.;;i 

Km 

171 

4  ;jss 

Thursdav 

2s;i 

2.215 

2  IS 

184 

172 

4.4:{() 

Friday 

279 

2,197 

224 

IGT) 

192 

4,377 

Similar  figiu'cs  are  ^iven  \>y  nerman  n^ports.  In  Relfiium, 
on  the  contrary,  Saturday  is  t\iv  most  fatal  day  of  the  week, 
while  in  Mn^ilaud  I'ccidents  are  fewest  on  ?kIonday.  Th(>re 
is  surprisingly  small  evidence  of  accumulatinu;  daily  fatigue 
and  decreased  efliciency  in  the  afternoon  period,  which  is 
shown  by  studies  of  daily  output  and  f.itijiue.  This  is  jiroh- 
al)ly  due  to  the  fact  that  the  oj)erator  becomes  more  skillful 
with  the  practice  of  work  in  the  prec(>di!itr  hours,  and  is 
stimulated  to  reiu-wed  el'foit  I)y  the  antii-it)at ion  of  relief 
from  work. 

Variation  in  Fatigue  during  the  Work  Period  as  Shown 
by  Output.  —  The  variation  of  fatigue  durinjj;  the  working 
period  is  found  to  piodiice  an  efRciency  curve  risiiiff  to  a 
maximum  at  ten  o'clock  m  th(>  morninti  and  a^ain  at  three 
in  the-  afternoon.  This  common  ex))erience  is  illustrated 
l)y  the  f(^llowiiig  fi<fures,  showiufi  the  distribution  during 
the  work  day  of  the  total  output  of  six  typesetters  working 

_    i     _   _■ 1  ,.-1,;..'      , ,,,       I        I il...    Ti.,!I,,.,    ,,1...  ,'.,!,   ._!..i 

til     pii'v'i"     I'iiii"!-^,     "»Viii>"    .    Vv'iiS    liiiiiu"     t't'y'    Wii'     LliWlliVi    I)  li  V.-'iwi  w^IIS'u^ 


WORKIXG    HOURS 


129 


PienuTi.u.'     The  nmuhor  of  lines  s.t  during  each  hour  was 
as  lollows : 


Hours : 
Xo.  of  Lines 


8  0.9  10,  I      11,11   12.  12  _',  2  :},  ;{  4,  4-5 
121     151       i  >U        125     l.u.H-h  142  124    % 

rcriod 


Accidents. -Mr.  Le.s.-ohicr  found  he  daily  distribution 
of  all  mdustna!  aeeidents  in  Minnesota  in  1910  to  show 
marked  mereases  in  aeeidents  at  certain  hours  of  th(>  morn- 
ing and  afternoon.  The.se  seem  to  have  a  definit."  relation 
to  th(.'  fatigue  of  th..  workers  and  to  the  number  of  hours 
that  th<.y  had  been  at  W(,rk.-''  European  and  other  American 
experience  bears  out  these  findings  as  to  th.-  occurrence  of 
accidents. =^ 

The  British  Association  found  that  nulimi  during  a  five- 
hour  working  p,M-iod  was  small  in  tlie  first  hour,  greatest 
m  the  second  hour  ami  that  h  decreased  .steadilv  after  the 
second  hour.  Arroh  nt^  occurred  least  often  in  the  fir-t 
hour  and  more  fre<iuently  each  hour  then-after,  until  the 
last  hour,  when  th^  nuinlu-r  of  ac.MMents  slightlv  decreased.^ 

Rest  Periods  as  a  Preventive  of  Fatigue.  —  The  only 
means  of  jaeventing  the  drop  in  output  an<l  the  increase 
m  accidents  which  occur  during  the  latter  half  of  the  work 
p<'riod  IS  by  forestalling  fatigue  with  regular  .scientifically 
established  rest  periods.  At  ],r(-sent,  rest  j.eriods  are  the 
exception  rat  her  than  the  rule  in  American  industries,  and  arc 
granted  almost  exclusively  to  women. 

Growing  Popularity  of  Rest  Periods.  -  In  a  ivcent  -tudy 
of  c..n.htions  hi  i;n  American  establishments  in  a  wide 
variety  of  industries,  lO.",  were  providing  n-st  peri(,ds  in 
some  departments.  In  oceupations  involving  gnai  nerv- 
ous .strain,  .such  as  th;,t  of  the  telephone  .,perator,  or 
IM  the  monc.tonoiis  work  of  ti,e  typist,  and  the  ele- 
vator man,  or  in  th.'  h.„  work  of  a  foun.lry  man,  p.auses 
■"•'■    "lore    fre.,uent    thaii    in    ordin.arv    f.a.:torv   work.      Re.st 


ui  Hii^d,  Mil   (Uhereiu  classes  ot  workei'- 


Ii 


1 

130 


TUK    HUMAN    FACTOR    IX    TN'DUSTUY 


food  factory  :ill  the  womiMi  rest  fiftcoii  ininutos  twice  a  day 
an<l  hundlcrs  halt"  an  hour.  In  eleven  of  the  factories  re- 
ported, rest  was  provided  by  shifting  workers  from  one 
occupation  to  another  at  intervals  (hiring  the  day,  but  this 
can  be  done  only  where  the  processes  are  simple.''* 

Their  Length  and  Frequency.  —  Ex|)eriinent  alone  can 
det(>rniine  the  desirable  frequency  and  Icnif^th  of  the  rest 
periods  to  l)e  introduced  in  the  working  spell.  Taylor 
found,  for  instance,  that  in  handling  pig-iron,  weighing  over 
92  pounds  a  pig,  a  workman  should  be  under  load  onlj'  43 
per  cent  of  his  working  time  to  insure  maximum  efficiency.^* 
Mr.  Gilbreth  in  his  "  Fatigue  Study  "  has  given  an  interest- 
ing example  of  the  results  of  proper  rest  periods.  Some 
girls  engaged  in  folding  handkerchiefs  were  told  to  pause 
every  sixth  minute  and  at  the  end  of  each  hour  to  walk  and 
talk  for  six  minutes.  Their  posture  was  varied  also  by 
sitting  and  standing.  The  result  of  introducirsg  this  sys- 
tem was  that  ihc  output  was  three  times  the  amount  of  the 
previous  best  week's  work.-^ 

Enforcing  Rest  Periods.  —  Rest  periods,  whether  several 
five-minute  periods,  or  f)ne  half-hour  period,  should  be  regu- 
larized and  enforced  and  the  rest  length  determined  after 
making  a  plant  survey  and  time  study  for  each  occupation. 
Pieceworkers  may  object  to  enforced  rest  periods,  but  if  the 
management  guarantees  full  pay  while  introducing  them,  their 
objections  will  be  easily  overcome  when  th(>y  find  their  out- 
put has  not  suffered.  Indcnxl,  the  primary  purpose^  of  these 
pauses  is  to  raise  the  efficiency  of  th(>  worker  through  reduc- 
tion of  temporary  fatigue  and  prevention  of  cumulative 
fatigue. 

From  these  studies  evidence  points  to  the  fact  that  fatigue 
accumulates  rapidly  during  the  tliird  and  fourth  hour  of 
work.  Tlierefore,  even  if  the  work  day  were  condensed  to 
six  hours,  fatigue,  as  a  cause  of   accid(>nts,  ill  health,  and 

UnGerpronurTiiMi,    vVmiiii    iiol     in:'  tiiiiiuiatlfiJ.      it    m   possibie, 


\V()i{K[X(;  iiouiis 


131 


however,  that  tlie  work  day  roul.l  i.e  eondensed  without 
danger  if  the  hiiich  hour  were  eliniinat(>d  and  hri(>f  rest 
perio.ls  retaine.1.  This  six-hour  work  day  of  two,  throe  or 
four  shifts  might  therefoiT  accompUsl!  what  I^)rd  Ix'verliulme 
hopes  -  increaseu  strength  and  happiness  for  the  workers 
greater  stal.ility  of  labor,  iucreased  production  and  lessened 
overhead  charges. 

Vacation  Pekiods 

Vacations  for  the  Rank  and  File.  -  Related  to  the  prob- 
lem of  working  hours  is  that  of  vacations.     The  time  has 
been  when  a  paid  vacation  in   iiulustry  was  rare,  usually 
hmited  to  the   management   l)ut   extended  occasionally  to 
the  clerical  force  as  well.     Now  we  find  the  Bourn ville  Works 
in  England   granting   to  most  of   its  women   employes  21 
days'  vacation  with  pay  during  the  vear,  —  5  day.s  at  Christ- 
mas, 3  days  at  Easter,  1  day  at  Whitsuntide,  and  12  days  at 
Midsummer.     To  receive  a  full  summer  vacation  a  new  girl 
tnne-worker  must  have  h.vn  with  th.'  .'ompany  nine  months 
The  fewest  holidays  any  employe  car-  receive  are  three  da}s 
at  Midsummer  and   at  Christmas.      For  pieceworkers    the 
works  are  clo.sed  for  ten  days  in  the  summer  and  about  five 
days  at  Christmas.     The  men  <>mployes  are  allowed  a  maxi- 
nmm    vacation  of   12   .lays  plus   a  bonus  day   where    the 
worker  is  entitled  to  it."* 

Every  employe  of  the  Solvay  Process  Company  who  has 
iH-en  with  the  company  one  year  has  one  week's  vacation 
with  pay.     .\fter  two  y,>ars'  employment  the  Black  Com- 
pany,   manufacturers    of  cloaks    an.l    suits    in   Cleveland 
giv(>s  one  week's  vacation  with  pay.     Sears,  Roebuck  and 
Lompany,  after  three  years'  service,  gives  two  weeks'  vaca- 
tion, and  before  that  one  w<>ek.     With  Fileno's  of  Boston 
tlie  vacation  period  is  apportioned  in  accordance  with  the 
length  of  service,  with  a  minimiin.  of  one  d;..  v  f'.^v  ..-i.-h  rnonth'g 
service,  and  a  maximum  of  two  weeks.-^    "in  the  Metro'pdli- 


132 


TIIK    lUMAX    IWCTOK    IX    IXI)l;STU\ 


tail  I.ifi'  Insurance  (  ninpany,  cvciv  (Muplnyc  in  1  he  serv- 
ice at  [\\v  hegiiiniii;.';  of  the  calendar  ye;ii-  r  ■ceivcs  two  weeks' 
vacation  with  full  ,i.iy,  ami,  if  enleiiiisj;  the  service  alter 
January  first,  imt  before  Marcli  tiist,  an  eniploy(>  receives 
one  week.  Additional  vacations  are  jjiranied  for  lenjj;th  of 
service  as  folhjws  :  ^" 

After    a  Ncars  of  service 1  ilay 

After  lit  \e:irs  (jf  si'r\ii(' -i  ila\s 

After  1,'.  ,\car<  iif  scr\  ice 1   werk 

After  JO  ye;irs  (if  s(  r\  ire 2  weeks 

An  increasinij;  mnnher  of  factorii>s  '^hut  down  duriiifi 
the  period  of  stock-takinsi.  wluii  this  can  Ix-  <lone  lininu! 
th<"  stnninta-  months.  This  coiniilete  shutdown  is  xiine- 
times  less  discouiaiiint:  and  e\pen-ive  than  ;ll•l■all,^ill^!:  vaca- 
tions for  the  I'lnployes  at  dill'eieiit  times  ihroutiiiout  a  lon^ 
period. 

Annual  Vacations  Enforced  by  Unions  and  Law.  The 
Tnioi's  and  -tate  legislation  are  lieeimiine;  to  enforce  annual 
vacation-  for  the  imik  and  lile  of  emjiloyo.  in  1*.M.">  the 
Milk  nriver>"  Inion  of  Chicago  siencd  an  agreement  with 
their  einplo.\<'rs  which  piovidtvl  two  weeks'  .ammal  vaca- 
thiii  with  pay.  Some  h.df  do/.eii  St.ites  provide  hy  law 
annual  vacations  tor  certain  classes  of  workers.  I'.mploycs 
of  the  federal  jioveriiment  and  of  many  cities  ,are  "iiaiiled 
annual  vacations  of  not  li--  Mian  a  week,  with  pay." 

There  are  no  availaiiie  data  :i-~  In  the  value  nf  the  v.ac.atioii 
period  mea-iired  in  imjiroved  (.utput  Ihrouuh  the  year. 
'I'here  is  scarcely!  iiee<l  of  any.  The  conipenies  which  pro- 
Mile  \acatioiis  with  l-.iy  iindouhleilly  reap  the  henelit  ill  the 
loyalty  and  hotter  hciilth  and  spirits  of  their  working  hirce. 

CoNCLCSION 

Shorter    Hours    Desirable        There    is    every   evidence 

that    ti.t.il  .1.  well  a-  hiMiily  output    is  decivased  by  a  long 


\V()KKIX(;   Horijs 


133 


work  .lay,  owrtiiuc,   ni^hl   u-,,rk,  or  !„ntr  ,vno,is    ,,f   w„rk 
u-.lh    m-ufn.Mrnt    ,v.i    ,HM„„|s.      \Vr    ,•,.,„    „..    In,,^,,,    ;,,,,pt 
tiK'  vrnlict   of  an   Ij.uli.h    inanularturrr  who  urot,.  t„  tho 
Kocds  Intdlnjaurr,  in    l,s;}(),  tliat  tli,.  l.,no  1u,.lv,.-.i,„|-a-lrilf 
">•   tliirtcr„-h,.,n-    ,Iay   wurkcl    hy   rl,il,l,r,.    in    uo.,!,.,,   and 
vvorst,-,!  nnlis  was  '•  rcndrnMl  a  cnnifurt  !,v  the  n-ular  h.,urs 
-f   rM.iK   (nm>  and  .vtirinf.-   to  I,,.!.- ^'^      Kxin.ri,.n.v  provs 
"'■''   '"'"-^  '"""■^'  '^i-''  ncith.a-a  .•oniforf   |o  the  worker    nor  a 
iH'neht     to    the     nianufaeturer     or     the    stoekholder.      The 
iTitish  Health  of  Munitions  Workers  Connnil t,.e,  app,>inted 
"I    l'»l.'.   nuKhf   u-ell   have  l.roadened  their  eon.'hi.ion   ,.  to 
tl'.'  .Irsu-ahle  Ieui::h  ..f  the  work  ,Iay  lor  wotnen  in  n.unitions 
♦<)  iiichi(h'  all  workers  in  all  work  :  '-' 

Hnppiiy     there   s|„.mI,1    |„,    i„    ,1,,^   ,„.„„,,  „,.   ,,„j,^^  ,^^   , 

"■';""";    ''"'"   ••"""i'-'    '"■"-'"    'IH.    i,„erests   ,„•    ,1,..    h.Hue   a,,,]    tho 

ml..res.  „t  Mnunt.,,,,..  for  the  hours  uhi.-h  - luee  n.ost  to  a  sati.- 

fuctery  home  I.IV  and  to  health  eoiuluec  most  to  output. 

Need  for  Experiment.  -    It    is   i,np..ssihl(.  to  make  any 
doK"iatic   a.sserti.ms   re-inlino    t|„.   desiral.le   haiiith   ..f  (ho 
wn.k  d.ay  or  the  work  peri(,d.      It   i<  clear  that    in  the  past 
••iiiployer.    employe,    .nid    e.uninuinly    li;,ve    alike    siifTc-red' 
fn.tn  a  nii.seoneeption  of  the  relation  hetween  the  leti^dh  of 
'lie  work  day  and  t.,!.-!  output.      Kxperiinent  .don.-  ran  de- 
''•nnnie   i  he   workiii-   peri,,d   .•(.ndu-iv.'   to   the   ureat<-sf    ,.f- 
f'ncney    in   pto.hietion    for  ea.'h    type  of  work   and    worker 
In  .-very  indii>try  and  every  ...riipi.tion  the  len^rih  .and  tin- 
-'f  111.-  w.rkinu  day  ni.ist   he  .adjusted  to  the  nature  of  the 
work,   the  working  ronditions  and   the  sex  and   ;m,.  of  H„. 
workers  involve.!.      It    nni-l    I.e  ivni.anlM'n.d.  (,„,,  that  tnaxi- 
""""  '''f'<'''''i'y  in   |)r.Hhi.'ti..n  .•.■inn,,|    he  a.'hi.-ved   i„  ,■,  U'^^ 
«l;i.vs,  or  we.'ks,  or  .-ven   v.virs.      Th.'  real   ivmiH   ..f  short. t 
li"Mi-s  whi.'h  uiv  .  inp!.,\es  I.Tsin.'  Umv  f,,r  r.'st.  n.-aralion 
*•''"'■•'<'"'"•    •""'    ""■    i'udditm   ..r    h.mn.s    ,,„d    ,h.-    nnprnv... 
I'lnit  of  th.Mu  .an  I.e  nua.Mnv.l  .mly  aft. a-  lon>r  prrio.ls  hy 


134 


THE    HUMAN    FACTOR    IN    INDUSTRY 


such  indefinite  quantities  as  stability  of  labor,  and  health 
and  happines, . 

Cooperation  of  Employes  Essential  to  Success  of  Shorter 
Hours.  —  Ml  ('uiili)y('rs  who  try  to  incnvise  produrtion  by 
shortening  the  working  hours  would  <!o  well  to  heed  the 
•uarning  of  the  British  Connuittee: 

If  the  proper  adaptation  to  i)arti('iilar  kiiiiis  of  labor  of  the  rela- 
tion of  xpells  or  shifts  of  work  to  rest  intervals  and  to  holidays  is 
to  i)e  (leterniini'd  by  ajjpeal  to  e.xperimeiit,  it  will,  of  eour.se,  bo 
an  essential  condition  for  success  that  the  workers  should  co- 
operate with  the  employing'  inanaKeuienl.  It  is  not  surprising 
that  'vhere  eniphiyers,  followint,'  tradition  ratlnT  than  experiment, 
have  disobeyed  [)li.\siulogical  law  in  tlu'  supi)osed  interests  of  gain, 
the  workers  have  themselves  fallen  very  commonly  into  a  tradition 
of  working  below  tiieir  best  during  their  s|)ells  of  labor.  It 
would  be  out  of  pliice  luTe  to  touch  on  the  economic  and  social 
probliMiis  which  arisi'  in  this  (onnection,  but  until  such  solutions 
are  fouiul  for  them  as  will  liring  a  hearty  cooperation  between 
em|)loyers  and  employ*'^*,  there  will  be  no  <'ertain  prospect  of 
determining  the  true  physiological  methods  for  getting  the  best 
results  iu  moderu  iudustr'al  oecupatious. 


CHAPTER   VI 


WORKIXO    CON'DrTIOXS 

Health,    Happiness,    and    Efficiency    of   Employes    De- 
pendent on  Working  Conditions.  -  The  physical  cnviron- 
rncnt  of  oruployos  is  a  .lotrnnininK  f^,,.,,,,.  „f  ij„^,j,,_  ^        ■ 
ncsH  and  offiHency.     Goo.l  vontilati,,,.,  light..,K  and  sanitary 
•'ond.t.ons   <-„ntril,u((.   diroctly    (o   th.   ..,Mpl,.v.>'s   pln-ical 
wcll-bi-MiK   and    (he   cas.-  with    uhi.-h    ho  can"  work   "  Firo 
protection  and  acci.lent    prevention   make  his  labor  power 
more  secure.     Attractive  surronndinfrs  ufTord  relief  fron,  the 
stran.  of  nmnot..nons  „r  fast  work.     To  this  en.i  a  button 
la.'tory    u.    Kochc.(,.r,    \,.w     ...rk,    provides    phono^naph 
'nus.c    intennittenlly  throughout    its  various  departnuwits 
'"   "'«•  'nachnie  sliops  when-  nois(>  pn.hibiis  uni:  ic,   p„tted 
P  ants  .ar."  arranged  in  convcuVnt   phurs  belween  tli..  ,na- 

'■'"""'•     ^^" ^^'  '•"■^'■■N   vines,   i.e.'s  and    .shrubs   dec„rate 

tf'o  ex(eri,.r  of  many  factory  buil.hngs,  whi.-h  are  ,iesigne<l 
as  artLstically  as  private  suburba.i  hon.es.  |.:iT„rts  to  beau- 
tify the  u.dustriai  euvironnu-nt  ..f  theemplove  are,  it  is  true 
of  I.'ss  nnp<.rtance  than  the  .ndeavor  to  prevent  accidents' 
•"■••"('••'"""al  <lisease  a.i.l  hre,  an.l  („  provi.l,.  ade,,uate 
v(>ntilati..n,  lighting,  and  .sanitation.  Xevertheles.s  .i„ee  (he 
•■'Hpioyc  .spends  .,(  lea.st  on.,  thir.l  <,f  h.s  dav  in  the  work.shop 
''  IS  desu-ablethat  his  surroundmgs  should  not  oiilv  make 
or  elhnency,  but  stimul.ate  lus  aesthetic  an.l  creative 
la.aillie.s. 


.AccinrNT   I'hkvkn-tion 

'oven 

Riown   Ml  r.ijiKliy   a.s  the  m.ivo- 


Growth  of  Acciden(  Prevention  Movement.-    \n  pha.se 

oi    labor   in.aiMtenancc  h,i.- 


i^> 


136  THK    HUMAN'    FACTOR    IX    IXDUSTUY 

mont  to  provrnt  in.iu^lri.l  .urM(-nts.  In  V.m  the  first 
exhibit  of  snfctv  apfUaiurs  in  tliis  country  was  held  under 
the  auspiees  of  the  New  York  Instilute  for  Social  Service 
This  led  to  the  orfrani/.ation  of  tlie  American  Museum  of 
Safety  (I'^UT)  In  \'M2  a  small  urnuii  of  .'n-meers  met  m 
MiUvaukee  and  lau.iched  the  National  Safety  Council, 
which  has  taken  the  lead  in  the  war  a-am-t  accidents  In 
four  Years'  tin.e  it  included  15.  KK)  representatives  from 
30<«  iii-ms,  coveriiifi  l.odOJMH)  worknKMi.' 

There  an-  a  numher  of  reasons  for  this  PMuarkahle  interest. 
Not  until  recently  hav..  Trnted  States  statistics  .^accidents 
in  industry  and  their  sequ.'he  been  available.  These  have 
formed  the  basis  of  active  propaganda  and  lei^islative  acti..n. 
Notwithsta.idi..^  this,  it  is  estinu,;  '  tliat  :^3,(MH)  workmen 
are  still  killed  annually  one  every  12  nunutes-and 
nrobablv  lOO.OOIt  leceive  injuries  suihciently  s.aious  to  cause 
ih,,,;  ,„ln^e  tune  from  the.r  work.  In  l>enn<ylvan.a  alone 
in  lOlf,  indu>trial  a.aidents  caus.'d  lost  time  e(,uivalent  to 
3  (V2o.:571  workin^i  days  and  S^T, :.:?:.. (W)  in  wasii-s."- 

'Thi-  loss  was  fonnerlv  borne  entirely  by  the  injured  work- 
„„n  occasionallv  a>^iste.l  by  fellow-work.as  and  the  em- 
plover  Workman's  coiupens.tion  laws  enacted  m  most  of 
the  State-  hav  divi.led  tic  lo--  by  -•harpn-  a  i-ercentajie  to 
,1,..  ,,np|over.  Thoe  law^  have  not  onlv  translerre.i  the 
,,,.t  of  arndent^  fnnn  en.i.love  to  eu.plox.-r,  but  by  n'(,uir- 
i„^svsten,atic  leportnc^  of  accidents  have  furhehe.l_  neces- 
sary data  as  lo  their  .'Xtent  an.l  seriou-ne-^.  'rhese  in  turn 
have  led  to  >afel\    c.auipaitins. 

Possibility    of    Preventing    Accidents        lATerienc-    has 

.hown  that  ai  leas,  .-.(.percent  olth-  n.du-tr>al  acn.lents 
,,v  prev.-nlable.  Twenty-two  of  tlu'  foonioM  mdustr.al 
,„,„,,,„  of  the  Tnited  States  rep-"'  ^"'  •■'^'■'  '-"  '"l>"'""" 
of    -y\    per    cent     u,    veaHy    arei.lents    aftu-    the    ndroduc- 


lion    of    oitiam/.ed    -aldv    woi 


Tlie    lull  rnational    llar- 


lOM        Ol        <  ri  ^,1111(,>   ■.  •  1  I  1|-  .3 

.1...  v..,.,,..l,   l'-,n.jr  (  ouiuany.  the  Illinois 


WOKKIXC    (M)XDrri()NS 


137 


Steel  rompaiiy,  and  th(>  Milwaukee  Coke  and  Oas  Com- 
pany each  reported  a  reduclion  of  more  than  80  per 
cent.'  In  eighte(>n  months  the  Tort  Huron  Enjiine  and 
Thresher  Company,  in  a  i>lant  employing  l)et\veen  three 
and  four  hun(li(<l  people,  reduced  accidents  .Ki  per  cent 
and  cut  down  compensation  costs  from  S2St)l  in  1913-1914 
to  Srjr,3  in  1011-1015.^ 

Safety  Devices.  —  To  uecomi)lish  these  results  many 
iiifienious  safety  devices  have  been  develo|)ed  to  protect 
workm<Mi.  Class  iioods  catch  the  hue  steel  splinters  from 
the  emery  wheel;  fi;of:'j:les  cover  the  metal  grinder's  eyes; 
"  congress  shoes  "  with  steel  i)!at(>d  toes  protect  the  molder 
from  a  scalding  should  h(>  spill  t!ie  hot  met.al  he  is  carrying; 
"  safety  nets  "'  catch  the  falling  workm(>n,  tools,  or  niaterialu 
in  construction  work;  automatically  locking  doors  protect 
elevator  shafts  in  office  building  and  factory,  etc. 

Importance  of  Personal  Equation  in  the  Reduction  of  Ac- 
cidents. Mechanical  api)lianccs  play  ;in  essential  hut 
comparatively  smaH  part  in  accident  prevention.  Ry  far 
the  larger  numlier  of  accidents  is  deiieiident  on  the  p(>rson 
or  persons  involved.  This  h.is  i.'een  demonstrated  repeatedly 
l)y  studies  of  causes  of  accidents  and  of  methods  of  pro- 
venting  them.  The  exi)erii'nce  of  the  Illinois  Steel  ( 'oinpany, 
one  of  I  he  iiioneer  compames  in  safety  work,  has  K'd  th(>m 
to  evaluate  the  different  methods  of  attacking  the  accident 
prolilem.  Only  \7\  \)i'V  cent  of  the  total  reduction  in 
accidents  is  .attiihutcd  to  the  introduction  of  mechanical 
.appli.inces,  and  another  S  p.  r  cent  to  improved  ligtiting  and 
clcaiilincs-.  i".duc;it  ing  by  means  of  leetuics.  av  bulletins, 
or  instruction  while  at  work,  was  held  accountatile  for  30 
|M'r  ci'ut  of  tlic  rcdiii-tion  .and  the  organization  of  Safety 
(  uiiiniiltccs  for  2(1  IK  I  cent        This  expciieiice  is  typical. 

Necessity  of  Arousing  Workers'  Interest  in  "  Safety 
First."  if  only  'J."i  per  cent  nf  all  iiidu-tiial  accidents  can 
be   Haccil   direcllv    to   umuardcd   or  ilaiigeruus   nuahiucry 


'I 


13S 


THE    HUMAN    FAC^TOIi    IX    INDUSTRY 


and  cquipnuMit  it  is  obviously  necessary  to  stimulato  the 
interest  of  the  employes  in  "  Safety  First."  Bonuses  to 
foremen  for  best  departmental  records  and  to  workmen 
for  useful  safety  sufj^c^stions  have  b(>en  found  to  serve  the 
purpose.  The  Fisk  Rub])cr  Company  of  Chicopee  Falls, 
Mass.,  reduced  accidents  50  per  cent  in  one  month 
by  the  introduction  of  safety  contest s.*"'  Safety  lectures, 
especially  if  accompanied  by  lantern  slides,  moving  pictures 
and  pictorial  bulletins  are  quick  to  attract  the  workman's 
attention.  The  most  valuable  on(>s  are  those  issued  weekly 
by  the  National  Safety  Council.  They  are  simple,  direct, 
and  usually  illustrated  with  photographs  or  drawings.  These 
are  at  present  used  by  many  concerns.  If  conspicuously 
posted  and  strikingly  presented,  accident  statistics  can  often 
be  used  to  advantage.  .\  conmiittee  of  logging  operatives 
in  Wisconsin  made  effective  use  of  them  by  posting  such 
rules  as  the  following  :  ^ 

Rule  1.  Cnrrying  nx.  The  only  safe  way  to  carry  an  ax  is  with 
the  handle  on  tlic  shoulder  and  the  head  hack  of  the  shoulder. 
Many  men  who  have  carried  tht>  ax  with  tin  head  under  the  arm 
havo'stundiled  and  fallen  and  liav(>  heen  seriously  injured.  Two 
hundred  and  seventy-one  men  \ven>  injured  while  handlinp;  axes. 

Rule  .j.  When  a  tree  starts  to  fall,  get  out  of  danger  at  once. 
Look  up  and  wateh  fur  fallin«;  limhs.  Two  hundred  and  eleven 
men  were  injured  and  fifteen  men  were  killed  hy  falling  trees  and 
limhs. 

Employes'  Safety  Committees.  —No  method  is  so  suc- 
cessful in  arousing  tlie  workers'  int(>rest  and  watchfulness  as 
the  formation  of  rotating  safety  conunittees.  Dming  the 
first  three  years  of  the  safety  work  of  the  Chicago  North- 
western Hailway  Comi)anv,  tlie  www  who  hail  served  on 
conmiiUics  ni»ort((l  (iOOO  points  of  danger,  and  07  (XT  cent 
of  their  suggestions  were  foimd  practical  and  adopted." 

Methods  of  organizing  the  safety  work  and  s(>curing  co- 


WORKING    CONDITIONS 


139 


and  the  men,  will  vary  with  the  size  of  the  plant.  The 
California  Industrial  Accident  Commission  has  suggested  the 
following  organization  for  plants  :  * 

(1)  With  less  than  .50  employes. 

The  rnatiagcr  or  superintendent  in  oharge  of  all  safety  work 
shouhl  appoint  one  of  his  employi-s  to  make  weekly  inspeetioiis  and 
to  report  to  him  all  recommendations  in  written  form.  These 
reeoinniendations  with  the  accident  reports  should  be  tiled  for 
future  reference. 

(2)  With  .")1  to  .500  employes. 

A  safety  committee  of  not  less  than  .3  persons,  including  the 
manaser,  a  superintendent,  ;ind  some  otht^r  iiigh  grade  etnploye 
should  receive  weekly  reports  from  a  competent  safety  inspector. 
The  safety  inspector  should  coiiperate  with  a  workmen'scommittee, 
which  should  be  a  rotating  committee,  one  member  being  replaced 
by  a  new  one  every  month. 

(;})    With  rm  to  KKX)  employes  and  over. 

In  addition  to  the  general  committee  a  foremen's  committee 
should  bo  appointed  consisting  of  about  .'>  foremen.  Workmen's 
committees  should  exist  in  several  departments.  A  full  time 
safety  inspector  will  probably  be  necessary  even  where  the  plant 
numbers  less  than  KXX)  employes  and  will  l)e  essential  for  the  larger 
plants. 

Safety  Committee  Meetings.  —  The  plan  proposed  by  the 
National  Safety  Council  and  successfully  adopted  by  the 
Port  Huron  Engine  and  Thresher  Company  provides  for  a 
Shop  Safety  Committee  composed  of  one  man  from  each 
department  in  addition  to  the  Central  Safety  Connnittee 
and  safety  inspector.  It  is  important  that  the  foremen  have 
'I  voice  in  drawing  up  the  safety  rules  which  they  are  asked 
to  enforce.  Every  member  of  the  committee  fills  out  a 
suggestion  blank  .at  each  weekly  meeting.  The  weekly 
meetings  are  held  on  company  time  at  company  expense 
for  the  discussion  of  the  |)revious  week's  accident  record, 
and  the  stuily  of  bulletins  and  saf(>ty  literature.  l']very 
sixty  days  tlie  company  gives  lh(>  comn\itiee  a  smoker  and 
distributes  nrizes  for  the  beat  safetv  suggestions. 


m 


140 


TIIK    HUMAN    FACTOR    IN    INDUSTRY 


It 


IS   r( 


l:vt 


ivciv 


th 


pie   in   the   initiii'  stasjps  of  a  safety 

tliffi. 


I'kci 


int( 


4.     It 


more 

cult  to  retain  this  interest  until  the  individual  has  formed 
the  "safety  hahit."  To  do  this,  all  conceivable  means  of 
popularizinij;  "safety  first  "  are  needed. 

Physical  Examinations  a  Preventive  Measure.  —  One 
of  the  most  important  accident  prev(>ntivcs  is  tlie  prelimi- 
nary physical  examination  and  periodic  reexamination  of 
all  em];ltives.  Fatijiue,  alcoholism,  and  disease  make  the 
background  of  a  large  number  of  accidents  which  usually 
have  been  attributed  to  the  employer's  negligence.  Their 
detection  and  correction  will  bring  about  a  substantial  de- 
crease in  the  accident  rate. 

Dollars  and  Cents  Value  of  Safety  and  Medical  Work. 
—  The  expense  of  installing  an  adeijuato  medical  depart- 
ment along  with  the  centralized  emjiloyment  bureau,  which 
would  res'ilt  in  a  decreased  accident  rate  through  aiding 
in  the  careful  selection  and  i)lacement  of  workers,  has  been 
found  to  be  a  paying  investment.  The  .Vvery  Company  of 
Peoria,  Illinois,  found  the  total  expense  of  maintaining 
an  employment  cU^iiartment,  an  extensive  medical  depart- 
ment, a  safety  inspector,  of  paying  compensation,  and  of 
carrying  insurance  for  excessive  liat>ility  only,  to  be 
28  per  cent  less  than  the  cost  of  insurance  for  full  acci- 
dent comp(Mi'<alion  coverage  if  the  medical  and  safety 
work  had  hcen  left  undone.  In  191()  this  safety  work 
plus  insurance  cost  Sl.SO  per  SlOO  pay  roll,  as  op])osed  to 
$2AH,  whi<'h  was  the  insuranc(>  rate  per  §100  pay  roll  for 
full  cover.age.'' 

The  Riverside  Portland  Cement  Company  of  California 
has  foimd  :  "^ 

Siiici"  sfici'tinir  <iur  risks,  \i/...  ('in|>lii,vitiL,'  only  incn  who  aro 
physically  sound,  .  .  .  iiol  om1>  a  trrca!  itMliictinii  in  tlic  manner  of 
afcidcnts  l)nt  .  .  .  also  a  irnatly  incrcascil  ctlicioncy  in  our  working 
foreus. 


WORKING    CONDITIONS 


141 


Americanization  Classes.  —  Tli(>  pn)hl(>in  of  safety  has 
many  ramifications.  No  sinjilc  rctnody  will  ;u".'oniplish  the 
desired  imnninity  from  accidents.  The  elements  which 
contriiuite  to  such  immunity  often  seem  remote  and  intan- 
gible. Required  attendince  on  company  time  at  Americani- 
zation clas.'^es,  for  instance,  is  prinvcjuisite  to  the  safety 
movement  in  an  industry  employmg  a  considerable  number 
of  foreif^n-born  workers.  With  the  Ford  Motor  Company 
accidents  decreased  54  per  cent  after  classes  in  English  were 
started." 

Eliminating  Child  Labor.  —  Children  and  younp;  people 
help  to  swell  the  accident  list.  In  eight  munitions  factories 
in  England  the  accident  rate  among  the  boys  (those  under 
18  years  of  age)  exceeded  that  among  the  men  over  41 
by  50  per  cent.'-  In  the  southern  cotton  mills  where  the 
younger  workers  are  employed  in  relatively  non-hazardous 
occupations,  the  accident  rate  for  children  is  more  than 
double  that  of  the  employes  over  IG  years  of  age.''' 

Decreasing  Turnover.  —  The  Westinghouse  Electric  and 
Manufacturing  Company  of  Pittsl)m'gh  found  that  76  per 
rent  of  their  accidents  prior  to  1918  were  eau.sed  by  em- 
ployes who  had  be(>n  with  them  less  than  one  year.'^  This 
indicates  the  close  relation  between  accidents  and  labor 
turnovcT,  and  the  value  in  accident  i)revention  of  adminis- 
tration, which  tends  to  st;.  ilize  the  working  force.  It 
shows  clearly  the  need  of  instructing  the  new  worker  and  of 
teaching  him  the  hazards  of  his  occupation. 

Every  plant  will  hav(>  its  individual  accident  problems 
defKmdent  on  the  natiuv  of  the  work,  th(>  conditions  of  work 
and  the  charact(M'of  itsworkcM-s.  The  means  of  meeting  these 
problems  adeciuately  c.in  i)e  discovcriMl  only  by  carefully 
compiled  accident  statistics.  The  proporiion  of  accidents 
which  are  du(>  indircctlv  to  i)oor  |)hysic:il  condition,  over- 
work, inade(juate  wages  with  the  concomitant  inilifference 
and  lowered  viiauiy  oi  iiie  workers,  ur  directly  to  lil-guarucd 


'm 


142 


THE    IIFMAX    FACTC'i     IX    INDUSTRY 


machinnry  or  iiiaMlity  to   understand   English,  may  be  re- 
vealetl  in  these  statistical  analyses. 


Prevention  of  OccrpAaoNAL  Disease 

Prevalence  of  Industrial  Health  Hazards.  —  Nowhere 
lias  tlier(>  been  sufficient  appreciation  of  the  extent  and 
vaiiety  of  occupational  disease.  Dr.  Hayhurst,  after  an 
extensive  sludy.  states  that  "from  one  fourth  to  one  third 
of  tlie  medical  afflictions  of  trades  persons  are  due  in  the 
whole  or  in  ^leat  part,  to  industrial  health  hazards."*  ''^ 

Processes  Grouped  according  to  Hazards.  —  In  his 
study  of  Ohio  industries  Dr.  Hayhurst  classifies  the  haz- 
ardous industries  as :  '-^ 

(1)  Thoso  iisintr  pdisons  as  a  chief  hazard. 

(2)  Dusty  industries. 

(.'?)   Those  in  which  fatiRue  and  inactivity  are  the  chief  hazards. 

(4)  Those  in  wliich  heat,  cohl,  moisture,  or  dampness  predomi- 
nate. 

(."»)  Those  in  which  there  is  more  than  usual  liability  to  con- 
tractinp;  cotnniunicahh'  diseases. 

(('))  Industries  having  miscellaneous  hazards  not  included 
above. 

Of  th(>se  the  largest  class  is  probably  the  dusty  industries. 
It  has  been  estimated  that  ai)proximately  5fiOO,0()0,  or  17  per 
cent  of  American  wage  earners  of  both  sexes,  work  under  con- 
ditions more  or  l(>ss  injurious  to  health  because  of  atmos- 
pheric impurities  causetl  by  dust,  fumes,  or  gases.  Professor 
Winsldw  has  listed  some  ')4  trades  in  which  fine  particles 
of   boni>,    hair,  metal,  and   mineral  or  vegetable   materials 

*  Tlic  >^tiiil,v  snnmi.irizrsi  (1)  United  States  Census  Mortality  Statistira 
of  Oc'iipaliiins ;  ij)  iir),(li)(l  ilispensary  records  and  many  hundreds  of  rases 
personally  seen  durin«  a  two-year  period  at  Rush  Medical  College  (Central 
Free  Dispensary);  and  C!)  the  medical  portion  of  27,SS7  eases  in  which 
the  p.'it.ient.  received  trcatinpnt  in  C'j. >k  Countv  iIosi>ital  duriniz  the  vi^ar 
1913. 


[pfc 


WORKING   CONDITIONS 


143 


form  a  dust  uiiich  it  is  more  or  loss  danjierous  to  broathe."^ 
This  l)y  no  means  eovers  all  the  industries,  processes,  and 
occupations  whidi  give  rise  to  dust ;  almost  every  iiiami- 
facturing  process  may  expose  workers  to  this  hazard  unless 
precautions  are  taken. 

Preventive  Measures.  —  A  large  amount  of  the  unneces- 
sary sicknesses  and  premature  deaths  may  he  prevented  with 
comparatively  little  effort  or  cost  on  the  part  of  the  em- 
ployer.    Many  occupational  diseases  may  be  prevented  by : 


i 


(1)  Securing  the  scientific  ventilation  of  workrooms,  especially 
by  the  installation  of  efficient  local  exhausts  which  remove  dust  at 
points  of  generation,  in  some  industries,  such  as  in  smelting  and 
refining,  fountain-pen-point  manufacturing,  jewelry,  etc.,  the  dust 
created  is  valuable,  and  it  has  been  found  profitable  to  recover  the 
valuable  material  from  the  collected  dust  by  means  of  a  patented 
electrical  precipitation  process. 

(2)  Securing  cleanliness  by  providing  ample  washing  or  bath- 
ing facilities.  Some  plants  provide  separate  lockers  for  street  cloth- 
ing and  working  clothing,  so  arranged  that  the  worker  must  remove 
his  working  clothes,  hang  them  up  to  dry  or  place  them  in  the 
lockers,  and  must  then  pass  through  the  shower  room  before  ho  can 
get  to  his  locker  containing  street  clothing. 

(3)  Wearing  of  proper  protective  clothing,  viz.,  respirators  and 
goggles  in  dusty  processes  which  cannot  be  taken  care  of  by  e.xhaust 
ventilation,  as  in  sand-blasting  and  emery-wheel  grinding ;  boots 
and  gloves  in  wet  and  chemical  proces.ses ;  special  siioes  for  foundry 
workers ;  helmets  for  welders  ;  water-cooled  furnace  doors  for  hot- 
process  workers ;    overalls,  aprons,  caps,  etc. 

(4)  Shortening  the  working  hours  (and,  therefore,  the  period 
of  exposure),  allowing  rest  or  "spell"  periods  in  fatiguing  and  ex- 
hausting work. 

(5)  Requiring  physical  examinations  at  entrance,  to  weed  out 
those  unfit  for  work  and  to  place  others  where  they  are  best  suited 
physically ;  and  periodically  to  ascertain  whether  workers  are 
suffering  from  the  effects  of  their  occupations  so  that  changes  may 
be  made  and  treatmi'ut  or  necessary  advice  given. 

((3)   Providing  medical  care,  including  first  aid  and  necessary 

ail  Kauri  neurit    trf^Jlt.!lH>nt  . 

{7)   Giving  health  instruction  and  safety  education. 


iP 


'?*i 


144 


THE    HUMAN    P^ACTOR   IX    INDUSTRY 


(8)  Proper  layout  of  iilant  and  pood  lioiisckccpinjj  so  that 
workers  in  iw.<'  process  are  not  unnecessarily  exposed  to  the  hazards 
of  another  adjacent  pioccss. 

(9)  Sanitation  of  plant  to  pre\ent  the  spreading  of  eoniinuni- 
cable  diseases.  This  includes  adequate  and  proper  toilet  facilities, 
sanitary  liuhhliug  fountains,  individual  towels,  s|)ittoons,  etc. 


Noticeable  Effect  of  Cleanliness.  —  ( )f  these  methods 
of  prevcMitidii,  jicisoiial  ck'uniiiiess  is  of  fireat  importance. 
Assuminji  that  the  chief  liazards  of  the  lead  inchistries  — 
dust  and  fumes  —  arc  ehmiuated,  lead  poisoning  will  still 
occur  uidess  these  workers  arc  taufilil  the  value  of  washing 
(especially  before  eatiu*!:)  <lieir  liands  with  soap  and  hot 
water,  cleanin}i;  their  finder  nails,  hnishiiig  their  teeth,  and 
rinsing  their  mi-utlis,  eating  lunch  outside  of  workrooms, 
and  wearing  working  clothing.  The  Sherwin-Willian\s 
Paint  Company  of  Cleveland  requires  its  men  in  tlu>  dry- 
.olor  d*  partment  to  take  daily  showcM-  haths  and  provides 
clean  underwear  daily.  Before  making  these  provisions 
and  rules,  20  per  cent  of  the  force  wviv  ill,  and  six  weeks 
was  the  average  term  of  s(>rvice  in  the  department.  Now 
the  personnel  of  this  department  is  nearly  pcn-manent,  and 
there  is  practically  no  illness  from  lead  poisoning. '^  It  is 
nothing  uiuisual  to  see  workers  in  tlie  lead  industries,  es- 
pecially painters,  eating  food  and  using  tobacco  on  the  sur- 
face of  which  has  been  smeared  lead  in  s(Hiie  form  or  other, 
in  that  way  poisoning  themsel/es.  Plumbisri  was  elimi- 
nated in  the  Pullman  car  shop  by  ringing  a  bell  ten  minutes 
before  the  noon  hoin-  and  re(]uiring  all  employes  to  wash 
and  scrub  (heir  hands  with  nail  brushes  which  were 
kept  chained  to  the  wash  stands.  In  one  year  this 
"  wash-up  "  system  reduced  plumbism  from  77  cases  in  1911 
to  none  in  1912. •« 

Sex  and  Age  Predisposing  Factors.  —  Future  study  may 
rpv<i;!l  ;>'.ore  ilecisiv'.'iv  th(*  extent  to  whicli  use  iwxl  sex  .aro 
predisposing  factors  in  the  various  industrial  diseases.     In 


-.!«&:S'I 


WOllFvIXG    CONDITIONS 


145 


certain  Eiirnpoan  countrios,  boys  and  women  are  not  al- 
lowed to  work  in  the  lead  trades  heeause  of  their  j^reater 
susceptibility  to  lead  poisoninji.  nor  in  eeitain  trach's  in- 
volving exposure  to  poisons  and  other  hazards. 

Women  in  industries  seem  more  suseeptil)le  to  pulmonary 
tuberculosis  in  the  early  ages.  A  comparison  of  textile 
mill  woi'kers  shows  that  in  the  age  period  1")  to  24,  pulmonary 
tubercailosis  accounted  for  36.8  per  cent  of  all  causes  of 
death  among  males  and  50.2  per  cent  among  females.'-' 
It  is  possible  that  this  may  also  be  true  as  regards  other 
diseases.  Women  will  probably  always  require  protection 
in  special  health-hazardous  industries. 

Attention  of  Employers  Drawn  to  Occupational  Disease 
by  Legislation. — The  preventiv(>s  and  remedies  for  spe- 
cific industrial  diseases  and  occupational  poisonings  are  too 
varied  to  permit  of  enumeration  here.  Their  study  is, 
however,  as  incumbent  upon  the  emjilover,  both  in  justice  to 
the  employe  and  in  .iie  interests  of  efficiency,  as  the  study 
of  accident  prevention.  This  fact  is  already  being  forcibly 
drawn  to  the  attention  of  some  employers  by  legislation. 
In  France,  Germany,  Austria,  Great  Britain,  and  Russia 
any  one  sufTering  from  h.ng,  kidney,  or  stomach  trouble, 
addicted  to  alcoholism,  or  subnormal  physically  is  pro- 
hil)it(Hl  from  employment  in  the  lead  trades.  Worliers  in 
those  trades  are  "xamined  periodically  by  physicians  in  most 
Eun^pean  countries.  In  France  this  is  also  true  of  com- 
pressed-air workers  and  in  Holland  of  stonemasons.  In 
Austria  workers  with  open  wounds,  tubercular  tendencies, 
or  delicate  respiratory  organs  are  barred  from  the  paper 
mills.  In  thLs  country  monthly  examinations  are  required 
in  the  lead  trad(>s  in  only  a  few  States,  'uid  in  New  Jersey 
and  New  York  compressed-air  workers  must  be  examined 
on  entrance  and  those  adilicted  to  alcohol  excluded.-"  Phos- 
phorous poisoning  lias  been  eliiiiinated  in  tli(>  Fnitpd  St.ate.s, 
as  in  foreign  countries,  by  adequate  legislation. 


Hi 


14() 


TUH    HUMAN'    FACTOR    IN    INDUSTRY 


r'()iiip(^tis;itinn  foi'  illiu^ss  directly  traceable  to  industry 
is  also  a  (lui'stioii  ol'  the  iimuediate  future.  In  two  States, 
Califoinia  and  .Massachusetts,  an  employer  is  held  liable 
by  law  lor  conipeusatioti  when  a  disease  arising  out  of  the 
()c(ai|);'.tion  is  contracteil  i»y  one  in  his  enip'ov.  But  pro- 
gressive cinployers  do  not  need  such  a  legislative  reminder 
of  the  wasteful  extnivagance  of  ignoring  conditions  of  work 
wliich  exjwse  their  employes  to  extra  disease  hazards. 


Sanitation 

Sanitary  working  conditions  are  the  employer's  first  bul- 
wark aganist  ill  health  and  lost  lime  in  his  working  force, 
it  is  dilHcult  to  es1al)lish  standards  for  sanitary  ('((uipment 
winch  are  adai)l:.lile  to  the  different  kinds  of  industries  and 
buildings.  Siienl  itic  study  in  each  plant  by  engineers  can 
alone  determine  the  mnnber  and  variety  o*"  'avatorios, 
toilets,  dressing  rooms,  and  baths  which  are  tie*  ,d.  Some 
of  the  following  studies  may  be  helpful,  howe\('i'. 

Sanitary  Standards.  -  In  10 lb  a  committee  of  the  De- 
troit l'AC(Mitives'  ('liil),  consisting  of  two  sanitary  engineers, 
one  d(M  tor,  two  safety  enuincers,  and  four  welfare  men, 
all  from  larg(>  Di'troit  plants,  studied  ihc  cciuipmcMit  of  model 
factories,  and  .vith  tlic  assistance  <sf  suggestions  from  mamj- 
facturers  of  -  mit.ary  plumbing,  reconunendcd  the  following 
standards  for  'lie  s.anit.iry  c(|uipment  of  factories.-' 

In  addition  the  Committee  stated  : 

Till'  uhjcciidii  to  |i.i[i(r  towels,  "tliat  we  <l()  not  jrct  (Mir  luinds 
(lr>  t'lKiutrli  to  prexctil  I'li.appiiitr,"  can  be  (lone  awny  with  l)y  a  well 
\iiitiiiit<i|.  w.'irtn  <lri'sv;iti(,'  nmin,  wIktc  I  he  Ii.'iimIs  dry  wliilc  ilrcssiiiK. 

\\  Ik  re  llirii'  iin nurs  into  wliii  h  waste  papers  and  refuse  ani 

(liniwii,  l|ii>  can  Ix'  lart'ily  elinijtiated  hv  painting'  lliese  cdriicrs 
whit.-  Old  iitrlitinir  Hiciii  \m  II.  One  floes  not  throw  waste  into  clean 
iiirrn-r 

Tile  doors  shoidd  he  l.iiil  in  ,ill  washrooms,  etc..  where  possiMe, 
titlicrwi.so  ciaicul,    well  draiiied.      Oily   lloors  siliuiild    hv.    scraped 


WORKINC!    roXDlTFOXS 


147 


Lavatories 

Toilets 

DniNKlNQ 

Fountains 
Butil)lctyi)e 

I,OCKERa 

Type.     . 

Individual 

All     porceliiin. 

Perforated 

no  wood 

arraiiK<'d 
so  lips  do 
not   toucii 
metal 

metal  slant- 
i  n  K       top 
to      pre\ent 
ace  u  in  u  la- 

Lucated . 

In  central 

Suhst  at  ions 

1  ion  of  refuse 
Wiiere  eon-       in    central 

b  u  i  1  il  i  11  f; 

iiiar  wcirkers 

veiiiciit  to    liuildinf,' 

Number. 

near  lockers 
1  to  15  men 

1  to  20  men 

workers 
1  to  30  men 

1  per  man. 
If      possible 
one     eoni- 
part merit  for 
work     and 

Accesso- 

Hot and  cold 

Automatic 

one  for  shop 
clothes 
hoc  k  ed 

ries 

water,    liq- 
uid     soap, 
paper  tow- 

Hush 

Forced      ilot 

air     \  en  Illa- 
tion    lo   dry 

PlunihitiK 

els 
Open     lype, 

\\  <  1       >;ar- 
inents 

Spwii'l 

plain 
Porcelain 

Must    have    a 

In    c  1  e  a  n 

It     is    ad- 

features 

forced     air 
ventilation 

li'.,'hl  places 

\  isal)le  loar- 
rarijjeiockers 
so  that  men 
corning      otT 
work  at    the 
.same      time 
liave     every 
second    or 
lliird   locker 
to      prevent 

Note.     . 

Average  lime 

roMipartments 

crowdiiij; 
If    lockers 

per  iiiiiii  nt 

shoiihl    not 

are      near 

wjish  ha^iii 

li;iM'     doors. 

was!)   basins 

Ji  nnnutes 

easier  to  keep 
clean 

alartreriimn- 
biT  can  use 
without  wail- 

ing 

148 


TIIH    II UMAX    FACTOR    I\    IXDUSTRY 


aii<l  swept  daily.  Wlici'c  i-cniciil  (lnors  arc  iiscil,  riihlxT  i)a(ls  for 
till'  iiii'ti  (ii  >laiiii  on  will  liclp  ill  iiiiTca^iiiL;  cotnl'ort  and  cnicit'iicy. 
Wlicic  (•us|)ii|(ir<  :iri'  luriicd.  Ilicy  should  lie  placed  nil  paper  mat  • 
twcnl,  inches  in  diameter  and  cLanaed  daily.  I'aper-linud  cus|)idur3 
are  recumiiiended. 

Ill  especially  dusty  tnules  or  wherever  poisonous  ma- 
terials are  used,  as  iti  niuiiitions  factories  and  l(>a(l  trades, 
a  larticr  jiroporl  ion  of  lavatoiies  will  i)e  necessary.  The 
British  Health  of  Munitions  Workers  Conunittee  recoin- 
iiieiiilcd  one  i)asiii  for  every  live  persons.-"- 

Importance  of  Cleanliness.  -  In  K«'tii'ial  the  benefit  of 
providing  ade(|Uat<'  uasliiiiii'  facilities  lies  (1)  in  the  bene- 
ficial (Tfect  which  cieaiiliiies^  has  on  the  health  of  the  workers, 
whether  or  not  poisonous  substanee;;  are  used,  (2)  in  the  in- 
creased self-respect  of  the  workers,  (3)  in  niakinj;;  it  possible 
for  the  workers  to  leave  the  place  of  employment  decently 
clean  aii<l  ready  for  social  intercouise  or  anmsement  without 
liavin^.  to  tio  home  first. 

Necessity  for  Baths.  -  Provision  for  baths  in  factories 
is  usually  m^cd, 

(1)  Where  the  wurker  is  exposed  to  "nt  heat,  'xcessivo  dust, 
(If  eiiiilaei   with  piiisdiiuiis  materials. 

(2)  Where  f I  products  are  haiidlcil   ilo  jirotect   the  imMic). 

(;{)    .\nd    wiure   there  are   not   :ide(pi;ite   lialhinir  facilities  in  tlio 

workers'  lionies  iraise  the  sinnd.ird  of  health  and  enicieiicy  for  tlio 
heiietit  oi'  liotli  Worker  .ind  «  mployer). 

This  last  reason  for  |)ioviiliiin  baths  is  a  question.ible  one. 
Were  the  em|)loyc>'  wa^cs  sufhcieiit  to  pay  hiiiher  rents, 
their  homes  miplit  ikiI  lack  bath  tubs.  It  may  be  justi- 
fi.ibh  however,  in  addition  to  nood  w.aues,  to  |»romote  (mIu- 
e.alioii  in  pciMinal  hyiiimc  iiy  dlTciiiiji  bathing  facilities  ;it 
the  company's  i\pcn-e  both  as  to  time  ami  scixicc,  or  by 
(•hai'iiinu  .1  immm.il  fee  ni'  a  feu  ciails  pei-  bath.  ( "om- 
pulsioii  attaclitd  In  the  use  nf  faclor\  baths  is  permissibk' 
and  .td\  liable  <iiil\  ulieiv  ihc  woiker  must  be  protected  from 


WOUKINO    CON'DITIOXS 


149 


i 


occup.'itional  poisoiiiiiji  or  th(>  pultlic  from  iinpuritics  in  poods, 
due  to  :i  lack  of  clcaiiliiicss  in  their  preparation. 

Standard  Bath.  -  The  standard  h.ilh  is  a  shower.  Tliis 
is  more  eleansinp  and  more  .stimulating  than  the  still  hath, 
and  easier  to  keep  clean.  The  overhead  shower  hath  is  {)racti- 
cal  for  men,  hut  for  women  the  spray  should  he  projected 
at  the  level  of  the  shoulders  (o  prevent  wetting  the  hair. 
Swinuninfj;  pools  when  provided  are  considered  as  part  of 
the  recreational  rather  than  the  sanitary  eciuipment  and  a 
show(>r  hath  is  usually  made  a  prerecjuisite  to  entering  the 
pool. 

Drinking  Water.  —  Every  effort  should  he  maile  to  pro- 
vide a  pure,  cool  and  plentiful  supply  of  drinking  water 
conveniently  located  for  the  workers.  I)r.  l);ii!in!j.ton  pre- 
•scrilx's  sevn  glasses  of  water  daily  foi'  the  maintenance  of  a 
normally  healthy  condition,  an  amount  f.ir  in  excess  of  that 
now  taken  hy  the  average  jH'rson.  Drinking  sufficient  water 
results  in  an  improved  digesiioii  and  hetter  .issimilalioii  of 
foo(i,  an  e(iual>le  hodily  tempei-.iturc,  a  lessened  thirst,  which 
in  turn  reduces  the  desire  lor  alcoholic  hever.ages,  .ind  in 
lessened  fatigue  hecause  it  enahles  the  more  speedy  removal 
of  till-  poisonous  w.astes  which  are  produced  in  tlu'  system 
with  the  expenditures  of  energy.-" 

i'"ew  investments  will  pay  larger  dividends  than  money 
s|)i'nt  in  installing  and  rumiing  an  ;ide(iu.ite  drinking-water 
.system.  The  important  points  in  such  an  undertaking  aro 
that: 

(1l  The  (|uanlity  of  water  to  lie  supplieil  niii^t  he  ihtcniiilieil. 
This  (lepcliils  upon  llic  n.itlire  of  the  uork,  the  season  of  the  \  ear 
ami  whether  ih-inKiii).:  cups  or  hiiMilini;  rourit.iins  are  to  lie  used. 
Tile  steel  mills  .■lUou  I  (piarl  per  hour  to  a  person,  inrluilini;  waste 
from  tile  cups.  Tlie  (ieiiianii  lor  w;it<r  in  this  cisc  i-.  uniisii:il. 
<)rijinaril>,  if  ,i  fountain  is  iiscij,  from  J  to  .{  (juarls  p,  -  workman 
every  S  hours  is  ■^lUliciellt. 

I'Jl  'I'hi'  supply  must  he  wholesome  .iiirl  its  source  vlioiilil  he 
carefully    cuii-sidtTod.     If    possihle    it    should    liu    drawn    fruiu    uu 


150 


THE    HUMAN    FACTOR    I\    IXDUSTRY 


approvcfl  city  water  siipplw  If  I  lie  plant  has  its  dwii  systoni,  frp- 
(|iiciit  cliciniral  and  bartcriiihitrii'al  anal.sscs  sliould  he  made.  If 
nut  siiitalili'  for  drinl-.in^  purpuscs,  the  water  must  ho  purilied  hy 
steriii/ation  or  liltratiDii. 

{'^)  The  water  should  he  kept  at  a  temperature  ln'tween  45 
(lef^rees  and  oO  deijrees.  It  is  customary  to  cool  to  a  lower  teni- 
jxrat  ure  and  allow  a  ri-^e  of  1  deijrees  or  o  deirrees  in  pa^sins^  through 
the  circuit,  with  an  a\traf,'e  temperature  (jf  47  dei;rees  in  the  system. 
The  refri!,'erator  e(iiii|>ment  is  usually  a  small  refritieratin^r  plant 
and  a  water  cooler.  The  latter  consists  sin  Ay  of  a  storage  tank 
containintr  a  pipe  coil  in  w  hicli  li(iuid  amnioni:  allowed  to  \  aporize. 
( "oolers  emplovins,'  ice  are  not  i,'enerall\-  nsi  _  exct  pt  in  plants  of 
com|)arati\  el\  small  si/.e.  jf  the  ice  comes  in  contact  with  the 
water  there  is  dan^'er  of  contaiiiinal  ion.  In  pipini;  the  water 
tlironi;h  the  hnildini;  a  circwlatiii'.,'  pump  is  necessar.v  except  in  \  cry 
tall  liuildintrs,  where  the  cooling'  tank  is  placed  at  a  hiu:h  ele\ation. 
FJy  these  mc  Ihods,  fre>h,  cold,  and  pure  water  is  liruut^dit  within  the 
e;i<.\-  reach  of  e\(r\-  employe  in  the  plant  and  adiU  trreally  to  his 
health  .ind  comfort,  besides  eontr  lUluit,'  to  the  enicieiicy  nf  the 
factory. '  -' 


III  most  factdiics  the  workcf  iiuist  ^o  for  tlic  water  him- 
self t(.  sum.  central  siipi)ly.  TKc  ( Icrmaii-.Xiiicrieaii  Button 
( 'oiiipaiiy  o!  Hochestcr  linds  that  "it  is  cheaper  for  ;i  seven- 
dollar  lioy  to  take  water  to  a  t went y-<lollai-  man  than  it  is 
for  the  man  to  fio  for  the  watt"-  himself."  M(  vcover,  liavinj^ 
to  go  .after  a  drink  means  usually  no  drink  at  all,  and  the 
iii'cessary  s(V(  n  glasses  a  day  arc  seldom  taken,  so  that  i  la- 
worker's  clfieieney  is  eons('(piently  not  maint.aiiuvl. 

Tile  system  adopted  liy  tliis  company  is  ,as  follows:  Six 
timi's  a  day  watei'  is  served  liy  carriers  to  every  emi)loye  in 
laige,  inili\  idiial,  metal-plated  (Mips  which  aif  eairied  on 
tr'ickswitli  t'lys  holding  IS  i  ii|)s  'I'he  (aii)s  are  stcrili/ed 
in  lioiliiig  water  aflei-  ea(  li  service  and  iiis|)eeted  daily. 
Special  appaiatus  is  provided  wher  liy  "Jl  (iips  are  lilled 
at  ( Mice  \\  It  Ik  III'   Waste. 

*  lor  tiirlluT  si'icniific  iIcImIIs  in  rctrard  i'>  llic  (••'talili-linicnt  of  ;i  ilriiik- 
iuK-watcr  sysli'in  m-c  urtirlc  liy  Cliailci  L.  ilubburd,  "  Fui'lory  Water  Supply,  " 
in  Facloru  Magazine,  Muy,  1U19. 


WORKING    COXDrTIOXS 


151 


i 
I 


Dressing  Rooms  and  Lockers.  —  Proper  prnvisif)ii  slioulti 
always  he  made  for  liaiigiiiK  clothing  in  a  dean,  dry  place, 
where  th(>  danger  of  theft  is  reduced  to  a  niininmni.  Even 
when  the  workers  are  not  refiuinMJ  to  wear  uniforms  in  the 
fact(»ry,  the  growing  and  highly  desiialile  tendency  among 
factory  operatives  t(»  change  their  clnthing  U>v  work  makes 
dressing  rooms  necessary.  .\s  nui<'h  jjrivacy  as  jutssihle 
should  he  afforded  the  individu.d  while  changing  cldthes, 
and  the  dressing  rooms  nmst  he  large  enough  to  prevent 
crowding  and  to  expedite  the  clianges. 

Individual  lockers  should  he  supplied,  altliou^ih  the  work 
may  not  retiuire  a  ch.inge  of  clothing.  .\11  lockers  should 
he  ventilate(l  eithei' hy  pcrforiitions  in  top  ami  liotton,  or, 
ideally,  hy  a  mechanical  exiiaust  system  for  each  i<iw  of 
lockers,  which  forces  the  air  through  the  perforations.-' 
Lockers  of  the  mcsh-wir'e  type  .are  acceptahle  onlv  to  the 
lowrst  cl  !ss  of  workers.  l>ockers  and  dressing  rooiii'^  liecome 
comparatively  less  important  in  the  more  cleanlv  work, 
however,  ;ind  a  row  of  pegs,  amply  spaced,  ma\-  serve  the 
purpose.  Still  .■uiothcr  xaiiition  in  the  melliod  of  t.aking 
c;ire  of  employes'  clothing  has  lieen  intindueed  in  one  of  our 
great  .\merican  corporation-.  Overhea<l  h;ingers  ai'e  used, 
becau.s>  in  the  lockers  working  cloliies  are  im!  nroperlv 
aired  and  di  led.  Thus  an  >  niploye  ch.inging  his  wet  clothes 
at  the  end  of  ;i  shift  alw.ays  li  is  dry  ones  to  put  on.  An- 
other device  wliii'h  comi>ine<  the  ,idvanl:i!ies  of  lioth  eon- 
sists  of  wire  l)o\(>s  or  recept.icle-  overlu  id.  to  which  the 
clothes  ;ue  lioisliil  !  \  idpes  and  pulleys.  TJie  wire  parti- 
tions keep  one  person'-  clotliiiig  from  loiieliiut;  .moija'r, 
while  lieing  dried  h\  the  warm  ail'  cuiicnt  :it  the  top  ot  (he 
''•loii.  'I'helt  1-  liuaided  :l^,^inst  iiy  li,i\ing  each  u>er  lock 
his  clot hmii  into  po-.j! ion   '' 

Uniform.s.        !,ockei<   .nc    not    only   (I'-n  iMe   |,iit    neces- 
s;uy  m  lactones  where     Ireet   el.itluim  must   l.e  changed   to 

or    COVCI'ImI    IiV   llintol'in'-l  illiriliK    the   vinil.  in.i    i>..i'i,,,l        \J. 


152 


THK   HUMAN    FACTOR    IN    INDUSTRY 


those  ciTiploy('(l  in  thi'  litiiMiiifj;  trades,  painters,  and  men  in 
otlier  highly  hazardous  occupations  usually  wear  overalls 
or  blue  dungarees,  hut  uniforms  for  women  are  more  rare. 
These  uniforms,  in  the  shape  of  aprons,  overalls,  and  bloomer 
dresses  with  caps,  are  gaining  in  popularity  for  the  follow- 
ing reasons : 

(1)  To  7)rinciit  accidoiifs  in  ocfupations  wlien;  thero  is  danger 
of  catchiiiL,'  clcilliinfj  in  inacliiiicry. 

(12)  To  i»r('\("iit  occupational  (liscas(-i  wlicrc  poisonous  or  acid 
substances  arc  used  in  llic  process  of  niaiiut'acturc. 

(:{j    To  preserve  tlie  clothiiitr  and  •<ell'-respect  of  the  worker  on 

Icavintr   the   factory   i)reniises,    wliere    iht nditions   of   work   aro 

niH'essarily  dusty  or  dirty. 

(4i  To  protect  the  consumer,  sviiere  food  products  are  being 
handled. 

(."))    To  eliminate  dress  snohliery  among  the  women  workers. 

(())    To  induce  (spril  il(  rurps  among  the  workers  in  a  plant. 

(7)  And  to  improve  the  general  apfjcarance  of  the  working 
force. 

In  introducing  a  uniform  it  is  well  for  tlie  employtT  to  con- 
sult the  taste  of  the  women  and  let  tlx'tii  aid  in  its  selec- 
tion. The  imiforms  are  sometimes  provided  by  the  em- 
ployer (jratis,  but  often,  as  in  the  c;ise  of  the  Hotirnville 
Works  in  Kngland,  either  th(^  material  for  the  uniforms  or 
the  complete  costiune  is  paid  for  by  deductions  from  the 
wages  of  the  women.  Mach  employe  i>  iipposed  to  have  two 
utiiforms  on  hand,  to  enable  freciueiit  washing.  In  order  to 
make  the  W(>aring  of  tliese  utiiforms  com|)ulsoiy,  it  is  advis- 
able that  the  enij)loycr  pnvide  them,  wlu'ii  they  are  needed. 


LldllTlNCi 

Effect  of  Lighting  on  Production.  Ptobalily  notliing 
affects  the  outinit  of  tlie  Worker  more  directly  titan  do(  ■<  the 
light  under  which  the  work  is  carried  on.  Mlectrical  engineers 
iiuvt"  biii>v>ii  liiiii  iii<    rail.  <ii  uiu|>UT  ( iih  in*  iiuieitM'ii  £  per 


Ml 


WORKING   CONDITIONS 


153 


cent  in  stool  mills  and  10  por  ront  in  toxtilo  mills  and  factories, 
by  improving;  the  system  of  illumination.  The  niplit  output 
in  one  steel  plant  inoreased  10  per  cent  with  the  installation 
of  an  (>fTi('ieiit  light injj;  system.  To  make  sure  that  light- 
ing was  wholly  respoiisilile  for  the  inerea-c,  the  new  lamps 
were  iakvu  out,  and  under  the  old  system  output  dropped 
back  ]()  per  ('(>iit  and  rotui.iod  to  the  liigher  rate  ordy  after 
the  new  lighting  systrm  was  restored.-^ 

Daylight  when  obtainal)le  is  the  bi  -t  form  of  lighting  for 
almost  all  kinds  of  work.  The  essentials  of  daylight  illumi- 
nation as  summarized  by  Dr.  Sehen>ehewsky  are  that  : 

(1)  The  amount  of  light  adinlttod  to  tlic  iritorior  should  be  as 
larKt'  a,'^  possible. 

(2)  The  lifjht  .shouiil  rv.irh  the  contt-r  of  the  room. 

(:{)  Tilt'  fiistrihution  of  tiic  Hy;ht  upon  tho  working  i)laiios  sliould 
!)('  as  uniform  as  possiljic. 

(4)  The  light  should  fall  upon  working  planes  from  a  proper 
direction. 

(.'>)  Tile  walls  and  'rim  of  thf  room  shoulil  he  of  icli  eolor  and 
surface  as  to  ahsorit  iiul  lit  lie  of  I  lie  incident  lit,'ht,  white  beinj,'  the 
preferalile  color. 

(())  Manufacturing  and  other  equipment  should  he  so  disposed 
as  to  avoid  casting  e\tensi\e  local  sliadows. 


Ratio  of  Floor  Area  to  Window  Area.  —  Roof  lighting  is 
pref(Tal)le  1o  lateral  lighting,  but  is  naturally  possible  only 
ill  one-story  iniildings  or  on  the  top  stori(>s  of  others.  The 
minimum  ratio  of  floor  area  to  window  area  is  generally 
speeifioil  as  1  or  5  to  1  for  factories,  ;ind  7  or  10  to  1  for 
office  buildings.'-'*  The  dcsiraiile  >i/o  of  the  window  space 
varies  with  the  kind  of  work  to  bo  done  and  iho  ainoimt  of 
direct  light  which  reaches  the  windows.  Too  much  d.iylighl 
may  In-  as  bad  as  too  little,  if  it  i>  gl.-niiig  ,iiid  tiyiiig  to  Ihc 
eyes  of  the  workers.  .\  factory  in  the  niMiiufacluriug  district 
of  a  city  may  need  tho  maximum  possiiilo  |)ropoition  of  w.all 

optiCC  UcVOlCU  to  WiiKiOvV'rij  WnCTOuri  .i.  uU:luiy  ill  iiii  upcu  iii'iu 


154  THE   HUMAN   FACTOR   IX   INDUSTRY 

will  nood  to  soften  the  light  in  the  workroom  by  decreasing 
this  proportion. 

Distribution  of  Light  by  Means  of  Special  Glass.  —  Wliere 
tall  buildings  sliut  out  nuich  of  the  cUrect  light  from  the  sky, 
tlu<  daylight  strikes  the  windows  at  an  oblique  angle,  and 
there  is  a  conscuiuent  concentration  of  light  in  a  narrow  band 
near  the  windows  and  an  absence  of  it  in  the  center  of  the 
room.  Roughened,  ribbed,  or  prism  glass  in  the  window 
panes  in  such  a  case  deflects  the  obliciue  light  rays  into  the 
center  of  the  room  and  (Miualizes  the  distribution  of  light. 
In  order  to  obviate  the  glare  of  direct  light,  work  tables  may 
be  arranged  at  right  angles  to  windows. 

Standards  of  Artificial  Illumination.  —  The  quality  of 
artificial  illiiuiiiKition  mu>t  approach  as  nearly  as  possible 
to  tli.af  nf  sunlight.  The  color  of  the  tungsten-lamp  light  is 
very  mucii  like  that  of  sunlight  and  is  generally  recom- 
men<led.  In  large,  high-roofed  machine  plants  the  flaming 
arc  lamp  is  sometimes  ncessary,  but  in  most  ca.ses  where  the 
light  is  suspeii(l(>(l  fi-om  a  height  less  than  40  feet,  the  single 
or  clustered  tungsten  lamp  is  highly  efficient.  The  only 
.'Xce|)tion  to  this  is  where  there  is  excessive  vibration  fn.m 
machinery  which  breaks  the  more  delicate  tung.sten  and 
re(iuires  the  carbon  filament  lamp.  The  tungsten  lam]) 
has  n(«t  only  a  longer  life  than  the  best  carbon  hlament  but 
is  at  least  100  per  cent  more  efficient  and  gives  a  light  of  a 
better  color  value. 

Positions  of  Light  and  Candle  Power  Recommended.  — 
For  safety  and  efficieney  the  InduMiial  (  ommis.Mdu  „f  Wis- 
coii-^iti  reciuiies  artificial  illuminalion  in  factories  equivalent 

*' c  (•aiidle-p(.v.(r  lamp,  iiuiig  ten  feet  from  the  floor,  for 

every  four  square  fivt  of  floor  space.  Tiiis  makes  individual 
ligiits  unnecessary  exeept  for  some  kinds  of  iiiie  wdik.  The 
supply  and  quality  of  light  may  be  .idtMiu.ate,  but  the  good 
effect  entirely  neulralized,  In  failing  to  have  lli(>  light  fall 
o:;  •:;;■  v.,;;;..  i>roperly.     The  lights  siioulii  be  placed  above 


WORKING    CONDITIOXS 


155 


I 


the  heads  of  the  workers,  so  that  all  parts  of  the  room  are 
illuminated  and  so  that  at  no  time  do  they  shine  in  the  eyes  of 
the  workers,  even  when  standing  in  an  upright  position. 
Carefully  shaded  individual  lights  are  usually  used  for  work 
such  as  drafting  or  fine  hand  or  machine  work,  but  where 
general  illumination  is  more  desirable  in  fme  maeliine  work 
a  standard  of  one  half  to  one  candle  power  per  stiuare  floor 
foot  hung  ten  feet  from  the  floor  is  connnonly  used. 

Reflectors.  —  Reflectors  are  indispensal)lc  wit  h  t  he  t  uiigsten 
lamp,  which  throws  a  large  amount  of  its  light  horizontally. 
They  can  be  so  constructed  that  the  light  is  dcticM'tcd  to  an 
area  somewhat  between  three  and  six  feet  from  th(>  floor,  and 
add  some  35  to  50  per  cent  to  the  efTicieney  of  the  lamp. 

Comparatively  speaking,  however,  there  is  little  work 
done  by  artificial  light  ami  the  great  need  in  many  factories 
is  for  adequate  lighting  during  the  daythne.  The  funda- 
mental problems  involved  are  the  same. 

Prevalence  of  Poor  Light.  —  Poor  lighting  means  in- 
efficiency and  lessened  production.  It  affects  output  ad- 
versely by  cau.sing  (1)  unnecessary  accidents,  (2)  eyestrain, 
headai'hes,  and  malaise  in  the  workiMs,  C?)  a  lower  speed  in 
working,  and  (4)  increased  difficuhv  iii  supervision.  And 
yet  the  New  York  State  Factory  Commission  in  1012  found 
30.7  per  cent  of  the  laundries  investigated,  49.2  per  cent 
of  the  candy  factories,  50  per  cent  of  the  ice-cream  plants, 
and  G4.S  per  c(>nt  of  the  chemical  establishments  inade- 
quately lighted.''*  In  over  50  per  cent  of  45  workrooms  of 
the  garment  trades  in  New  York  City  in  191,",  illumination 
was  inade(iuate.  It  is  not  sur|)rising.  therefore,  that  three 
quartei-s  of  2900  workers  in  the  g:ninent  trades  <>xamined 
in  one  year  had  defective  vision." 

Since  poor  lighting  is  so  prevalent  and  propc-r  illumina- 
tion is  an  important  factor  in  the  efhcient  y  of  the  worker 
.'Hid  bears  so  directly  upon  the  late  of  output,  it  deserves 
caxeful  cuiisideratiun  and  detailed  study. 


■Wl\ 


i 

1 

156 


THE    HUMAN    FACTOR    IX    INDUSTRY 


Ventilation 

Importance  of  Temperature,  Humidity,  and  Dust  Content 
of  the  Atmosphere.  —  Scv(>r;il  intcivstiii^  studies  have  been 
made  in  the  past  few  years  to  (l('t(>niiiiH>  the  effect  of  atiuos- 
plieric  coiiditioiis,  within  ami  witlimit  the  workshops,  on 
the  efficiency  and  health  of  tlie  workers.  It  has  })eei. 
supposed  that  tiie  evils  of  poor  ventilation  were  due  chiefly 
to  the  carbon  dioxide*  content  of  expired  air,  to  the  volatile 
substances  given  off  in  perspiration,  and  to  bacteir  carried 
by  the  aii.  Now  it  is  known  that  the  chemical  rondition 
of  the  atmosphere  has  compaiatively  slight  effect  on  workins'; 
capacity  and  bodily  comlitioii,  and  that  the  air  does  not 
carry  bacteria  to  any  extent.  Quantities  of  cnrbon  di(.\ide 
given  off  in  a  manufactuiing  p'ocess  or  otlur  gases  and 
fumes  may  be,  (if  course,  extremelv  injurif,,!,  tu  th(>  worker, 
but  such  conditions  are  exceptional.  It  is  temperature, 
humidity  and  dust  content  which  usually  make  the  ;  ir  of  a 
workroom  good  or  bad  in  its  (effect  on  the  worker. 

Seasonal  Variation  in  Output.  —  Professor  Huntington 
traced  the  daily  variation  in  output  of  workers  in  factories 
in  Connecticut  and  Pittsburgli  for  three  years  (1911-1014). 
Piecework  wag(>s  were  found  to  vary  from  season  to  season, 
being  lowest  in  January  and  highest  in  early  luiie  and  Novem- 
ber. Thus  the  mininunn  of  efficiency  came  in  the  cold  winter 
months  and  hot  sunuaer  months,  while  maximum  efficiency 
seemed  to  be  obtained  when  the  outdoor  temperature  ranged 
from  (>()  degrees  to  •').")  degreivs.-' 

Effect  of  Temperature  on  Output.  —  Exhaustive  experi- 
ments have  been  carried  on  i>y  the  New  York  State  Tonunis- 
sion  on  Ventilation.  Over  one  hundred  men  and  women  were 
kept  at  vari(iu>  kinds  of  physical  or  mental  labor  for  a 
day  or  half  day  in  specially  constructed  rooms  in  which 
the  atmosiiheric  conditions  were  carefully  re;  ulated.  The 
effect  of  hut  or  cold,  fresh  or  stale  uir  on  their  efficiency  aud 


I 

1 


FiU 


WORKING    CONDITIONS 


157 


bodily  condition  was  accurately  measured.  The  heavy 
physical  labor  of  lifting  dumb-bolls  or  riding  a  stationary  bi- 
cycle was  performed  lo  per  cent  UKjre  efficiently  at  G8  degrees 
than  it  75  degrees,  and  37  per  cent  more  than  at  8G  degrees.* 
In  typewriting,  which  combines  mental  and  physical  effort 
to  an  extent  typical  (jf  most  office  work,  G.3  per  cent  mure 
work  was  done  at  (IS  degrees  than  at  75  degrees.  In  the 
purely  mental  work  of  arithmetic  comparative  efficiency 
was  maintained  at  a  temperature  as  high  as  75  degrees,  but 
in  every  other  case  68  degrees  produced  maxiimmi  efficiency 
and  was  always  the  most  comfcjrtable  to  the  workers.  Stale 
or  fre.sh  air  made  little  difference  in  the  condition  of  the 
workers,  except  that  tlnnr  appetite  slightly  decrea.sed  as  the 
proportion  of  carbon  dioxide  and  organic  substances  in  the 
air  increased.^' 

Standards  for  Temperature  and  Humidity.  —  The  de- 
sirable temperature  will  vary  from  GO  degrees  to  65  degrees 
for  work  invo!  ing  much  physical  exertion  to  between  6S 
degrees  and  70  degrees  for  other  work.'^  Thompson  found 
that  thf  most  desiral)le  relative  humidity  of  the  workroom  is 
55  to  G.'>  pc    cent,  with  the  air  changed  three  '  imes  an  hour.'"' 

Ventilating  S^  stem.  —  The  ventilating  and  heating  system 
re(iuir(Ml  will  diner  with  (>ach  work  place.  In  the  ordinary 
workroom,  where  the  window  space  is  sufficient,  1800  cubic 
feet  of  fresh-air  space  per  hoin-  jier  person  can  be  secured  in 
winter  and  summer  by  op(>niii^  the  windows  top  and  bottom 
and  inserting  a  draft  deflector  at  the  bottom.  Another 
excellent  method  of  window  ventilation  is  to  admit  fresh 
air  over  window  boards  with  ample  radiation  under  the 
windows,  while  a  gravity  exhaust  is  provided  for  the  re- 
mova'  of  vitiated  air.  In  addition  to  this  window  ventila- 
tion the  T'ritish  Committee  recommend  for  one-story  build- 
ings narrow  openings  or  louvers  wher(>  the  roof  meets  the 

*  Fiibrenhoit  sculo  used  throughout. 


158 


THE    HUMAN    FAC  TOR    IN    INDUSTRY 


oonimonly  used.  The  latter  cotLists  Kiinply  in  a  "  coil  so 
shaped  iliat  the  air  currents  blowii  :  around  and  over  it 
will  generate  a  suction  in  the  pipe  ding  from  ti.e  work- 
room." "  Window  ventilation  is  only  sufticient  where  some 
one  person  is  appointed  and  authorized  to  regulate  it, 
otherwise  some  sensitive  person  will  manage^  to  close  near- 
l)y  windows.  In  the  Metropolitan  Life  Insurance  Com- 
pany, windows  are  daily  thrown  wiile  open  in  ev(>ry  ilepart- 
ment  during  rest  periods,  when  the  emj)loyes  are  moving 
al)out  and  less  susceptible  to  drafts.  The  real  (luestion  is 
not  how  much  air  enters  or  leaves  the  room  or  how  much 
oxygen  it  contains,  hut  what  its  temi)erature  is  It  is  there- 
fore necessary  to  install  thermometers  so  that  the  person  in 
charge  may  open  the  windows  when  the  temperature  ex- 
coeds  68  degr«>es.  A  specially  devised  system  of  hoods, 
exhausts,  and  flues  is  of  course  essential  where  smoke,  dust, 
or  heated  fumes  are  given  off  in  the  process  of  manufacture.* 

Heating  System.  —  The  natural  and  healthy  method  of 
heating  any  room  is  obtained  l)y  radiation  from  stoves,  but 
in  factories  this  is  impossible,  and  a  "  i)lt>mnn  system," 
combining  "  indinn-t  radiation  and  mechanical  ventilation," 
may  l)e  provided  l)y  an  apjiaratus  through  which  fresh  air 
is  blown  into  the  room  rapidly  by  fans  over  the  heating  or 
cooling  coil,  with  a  chaml)er  of  water  sprays  to  regulate 
humidity,  and  passes  out  of  the  room  through  special  pipes." 
In  heating  tlie  work  place  any  system  of  pumping  in  iiot 
air  which  does  not  include  apparatus  for  reguhaing  humidity 
has  l)een  condenmed  I)ecaus(>  it  produces  a  dry,  iii(;notonous 
and  depressing  atmosphere. 

Prevalence  of  Bad  Conditions.  -  Xeedl(>ss  to  say  such 
conditions  -  tlS  dfgrees  temi)er.".tun\  with  tint  more  tlian 
().")  relatixc  humidity        are  ran^Iy  obtaiiu'd  in  factorv  rooms. 


*  Vnr  (liniiMisidiis  and  kind  i.f  cxliMUsI  system  iiccdcl  in  -iust  roni(iv;il 
sec-  <iiii.  i,  ;.v  ,j,,iiu  i;.,.i.ii,  ii;,ji,niv  ami  Sariilary  Eqiupmtiil.  liid.  M.iii, 
Oct.,  1917. 


mm 


WORKIXG   CONDITIONS 


159 


Of  215  workrooms  in  Now  York  State  rocontly  investigated, 
neu. '^  one  third  luid  a  touiperature  of  80  dcgiecs  or  over  and 
tliree  fourths  of  73  degrees  or  over.^'-*  In  forty-two  laundries 
visited  in  1917  by  officers  of  the  New  York  City  IleaUh 
P'>partnient,  the  tenipeniture  of  the  wash  rooms  ranged 
from  83  degrees  F.  to  DO  degrees.  Twenty-six  of  thirty-six 
mangle  departments  gave  a  temperature  of  ov(>r  8G  degrees.^' 
Such  extreme  temperatures  as  these  are  not  peculiar  to 
laundries. 

It  is  obvious  that  ventilation  is  an  important  factor  In 
labor  maintenance,  but  that  no  one  s(>t  of  rules  can  bo  recom- 
mended for  the  ventilation  of  all  work  places  for  all  kinds  of 
work.  The  general  principles  upon  which  woikruom  venti- 
lation should  bo  I)ased  are  briefly  summarized  by  the  British 
Committee.^-'     The  atmosphere  should  be  : 

(a)  Ccol  rather  than  Lot. 

(b)  Dry  rather  thiui  (huiip. 

(r)  Diverse  ia  its  tciiiixTature  in  different  parts  and  at  dif- 
ferent times,  rather  than  uniform  and  inouotouous  and  (which  ia 
ultimately  connected  with  this  diversity) 

(c/)  Moviug  rather  ihau  still. 


Fire  Protection 

The  Need  for  Fire  Prevention.  —  The  task  of  fire  pre- 
vention which  lies  before  the  American  people  and  manu- 
facturers is  evident  when  we  compare  the  per  capita  annual 
loss  by  fire  in  France,  Ciormany,  Austria,  or  Italy,  which  was 
less  than  .S.oO  even  eighteen  years  ago,  with  that  m  the 
United  States,  which  w;is  ,?3.02  during  the  five-year  period 
preceding  10()7."*  The  fire  losses  in  Now  York  City  are 
4'  times  as  great  as  in  I,ondon.  In  1917  the  total  loss  from 
tiro  in  the  United  Stat(>s  was  S2<')7,r)()(),71().''' 

Building  Construction  the  First  Problem.  ~  A  modc^l 
factory  from  the  stiuiifnoitit  df  fir('!M"<!of  coiisf ruction  Ik  the 
BouMiville  Works  in   England,   which  covers  some  thirty- 


IGO  THE    HUMAN    FACTOK    1\    IXDUS'^H 


three  iieres  of  land  and  consists  of  niitnerous  woP'  ■  as,  ware- 
houses and  ofiiecs.  The  stock  room,  in  whidi  hir,  niaiilitie-: 
ofsii^ar,  111  ir,  cocoa,  t  iniher.papei-, oil,  pet  ro|,(tc.,  are store<l,  is 
in  an  is(»l;tted  huildinji  made  of  laick, steel, and  ferro-concrete. 
Each  section  of  the  iujildinij;,  c.icli  elevaloisiiaft  and  stairway, 
is  an  isolated  fireproof  unit.  The  power  gas  plant  and 
electric  p'tierating  station  are  likewise  isolated.  In  the 
factory  huil'Mngs,  floors  are  of  ferro-concacte  supported  hy 
ferro-concacte  incased  stanchions.  No  inllainmal)le  wood 
is  used  in  the  newer  huildin^^s  and  steel  principal.;  supi)ort 
the  roof.  Fireproof  doors  si>parate  each  department  and 
close  each  window,  while  the  coimectin^;  hriilties  and  pas- 
sajres  Itetween  departments  ai'e  constructed  of  iron  or  ferro- 
conercte. 

Such  elalior.ale  construction  is  not  feasible  in  smaller 
factories,  however,  .and  instead  of  the  reinforced  concrete 
huildini:.  it  in.iy  I)e  nece.-sary  to  use  the  stamlard  mill  con- 
struction l)uildin<^.  consi>linu  <>f  in.a— ive  tiuilier  which  can 
l)e  charred  hut  not  (>a~ily  liurnt.  Such  a  huildini:;  costs  only 
2.")  per  cent  more  tii.an  the  inllamniahle  fr.ame  Imilding  and  is 
therefoic  rapidly  disjilacini.:  the  latter.  In  all  factories,  in 
addition  to  llie  pro\isioii  of  adequ.afe  e\it-  anil  stairways, 
each  floor  should  he  an  isolated  lire  unit .  all  inleiior  openings 
to  elev.ators,  st.airw.iys  oi-  air  sliafts  -hoiiM  he  protected  liv 
fireproof  doors  or  shutter<,  .ind  the  lire  escapes  sliould  not 
p.ass  openings  through  which  llames  can  issue  directly  from 
any  floor. '^ 

Other  Precautions.  \lthiMmh  the  Imildinns  m.iy  he  of 
the  mii-t  .ipp;-o\'eil  lire|)roof  con>ti'Uci  ions,  damxer  still  re- 
main- if  ea-ily  fired  dust  i-  .dloweii  to  accunnilate  or  il 
intl.iMiiii.aliie  waste  materia!  '  left  e\|)o-;ed  to  the  air. 
Mechanical  du-t  colli  rii,,^  .are  needed  in  the  mon>  dust} 
dep.artment-,  .and  nn  ii  -Imuld  >\\ee|)  oii!  the  rooms  and 
passa)j;es  ilail\' 

Duriiii:  each  holiday  the  iieam-,  fiiriler-,  and  machinerv  in 


WORKIN'C    roXDITlOXS 


Ifil 


factorios  should  he  clcuncd.  Iron  boxes  with  air-tiffht  Hds 
should  h(>  provid(Ml  for  oily  rajis,  and  in  each  room  roccptacics 
for  ruhhish  shoulil  Ix'  supplied.  In  many  faelDi'ies  smoking 
is  wisely  proliii)iled  except  in  special  sniokiiiy;-roonis,  at  meal- 
times, and  only  safety  matches  provi<le(l  i)y  the  iirni  arc 
used  on  the  plant  premises. 

Fire  Alarms.  —  In  si'ite  of  overy  precautinn  fires  will 
occur.  It  has  been  estimated  that  SO  per  cent  of  the 
fires  in  the  I'tiifed  States  are  du,"  to  carelessness,'''  ;ind  tliis 
estimate,  which  isccrlainly  not  uniluly  exauiierated,  indicates 
the  importance  <if  cnnliliiiK  tl:e  speedy  discovery  and  extinc- 
tion of  unavoidable  (ires.  .\  watchman  on  constant  duty 
should  l>e  che''';ed  in  his  rounds  by  recordini:  clocks  at 
various  statioi.  in  the  f.u  tory.  In  the  more  dangerous 
placets,  wiiere  iiiflairunable  materials  arc  stored  or  wliere 
fir(>s  may  easily  oriiiinate,  thermostatic  fin^  alarms  should  be 
installed,  in  which  an  cl(<'tric  (aurent  starting  the  alarm  is 
autonuitically  producecl  wiieuever  any  jiarl  becomes  over- 
hi'ated.  In  every  factory  some  .systeui  of  fire  alarms  is 
essential. 

Fire  Extinguishing  Apparatus.  —  Fire  pails  should  be 
ade<|u;itc  in  numiicr  aii<l  kept  full  of  w.ater.  IIosc  lioxcs 
must  lie  freely  di-triiiuiid  ami  sulHcient  water  pn--surc 
assured.  Sawdu-t  or  saml  boxes  slioul  I  lie  placed  wheic 
oils  are  stored,  and  cliemical  lire  extintiuishers  establish, .,1  ;it 
fre(|ueiit  intei'vals.  i'res^uic  from  insurance  underwriters 
has  I'esulted  in  the  geiier.'d  inst.illat ion  m  large  factoiii's 
of  the  automatic  lite  sprinkler,  a  '-xstem  of  o\('rhe.!d  pipes 
fidiu  which  sti'e;:ms  of  water  ale  projccteil  wlien  the  fu-ili|e 
metal  whicii  closes  tlie  opi  iiinu-  i-  nu'lted  liy  ;i  heal  of  aixiut 
It'll)  degrees  !•".'''  I.;irge  jilant-.  -uch  a  the  Hournville  Woi  ks, 
are  sometimes  equipped  with  lliiir  own  liie-'ngines,  ho^e 
carts,  smoke   llellliel^   ;illd    tiaihed   tile   liriu.'ides. 

Fire  Drills  (onfusion  re>uliing  ;n  p.inics  i\  tlic  chi,  f 
cause  of  fire  ac(  idi  nts.      {''or  this  reason  lire  drills  -dioiild  be 


n 


1()2 


THE    HUMAN    FACTOR    IN    INDUSTRY 


insistod  upon,  wookly  or  l)i-\vo(>k!y,  on  difforont  days,  without 
any  previous  notice.  I'V)r  plants  oiK-ratinii  the  full  twenty-four 
hours,  tire  (h'iils  for  tlie  nif^ht  force  should  l)e  inchidi;!.  Tho 
usual  jirocedure  in  or^ianizin^  such  drills  is  thai  of  appoint- 
ing a  captain  for  each  floor  and  iustructinjj;  the  oinploj'cs  to 
follow  their  aisle  kai'er  to  the  nearest  exit  in  (luiet,  unhurried 
order.  Tli(>  .Tre  chief  i-  usually  the  policcM'hief  or  chief  elec- 
trician who  's  in  cointnand  ivhen  the  alarm  sounds. 

In  the  Hournville  Works  a  fire  brigade  of  twcniy-nino  men 
is  on  call  i>y  special  signals  day  and  night.  They  are  ro- 
muiHTated  hy  homises  for  jjractice  attendance,  and  a  (juar- 
terly  allowance  toward  house  rent.  The  luigade  gains  expe- 
rience in  combating  tiies  liy  lieing  allowed  to  tiun  out  for 
any  call  in  the  locality  of  the  factory.  Two  memhers  are 
appointed  each  week  to  inspect  d.iily  all  rooms  after  work 
hours,  di>po-iiig  of  neglected  waste,  closing  fireproof  doors 
and  shutters,  and  removing  nlist ructions  which  may  [)revent 
easy  access  to  \\ic  lire  appliances.  I'ii'e  drills  are  held  occa- 
sionally. I'iic  exits  lead  down  to  the  ground  and  \ip  to  the 
roof,  wher(>  roof  walks  m.ike  it  possible  i.)  tjet  from  one  end 
of  the  works  to  the  other. 


I 


CHAPTER   VII 


I 


MEDKWL   {;ARR 

Extent  of  Illness  in  Industry.  —  lOffuifMicy  ami  health  are 
ins("paial)Ii'.  Vet  statistics  indicate  a  markedly  dehihtated 
state  of  liealth  in  the  workinu;  popiilatioti.  A  recent  study 
of  7r)0,(K)()  workers  made  tiy  the  I  iiited  States  Puhhc  Health 
Service  showed  the  e.\istetic(>  of  a  G  per  cent  iion-elTective 
Working  force  in  American  indu-'ry."  Minor  aihneiits  are 
ehielly  re-poiisihle  for  tiiis  hir^ie  percentage  of  non-elTectiv(!S. 
Fresh  colds  are  allowed  to  develop  into  hronchitis  and 
scratches  into  infected  sores,  decayiMJ  teeth  lead  to  intestinal 
poisoning,  and  small  ills  aie  ficnerally  ijiiiored  until  their 
cinnulativc  cfTects  result  in  serious  illness  or  disease.  The 
net  result  is  that  in  the  I'nitrd  States  some  2Sl,7.")t), 000  days 
are  lost  yearly  hy  .'};{, r)(MI,000  w.i^je  eaiticrs.-'  Ividi  worker 
loses  approximately  S\  days  a  ye.ir  at  an  amnial  loss  to  the 
eountiy  of  some  three  (piarters  of  a  liillioii  dollars.  Fn  terms 
of  one  lar^e  corporation  in  I'.MO  this  mea..t  that  10  per  cent 
of  their  turnover  was  due  to  iUness.  In  .another  corporation 
it  was  l;{  per  cvu\  ^ 

Economy  and  Expediency  Make  Illness  a.  Industrial 
Problem.  The  prevention  and  cure  of  illness  is  essentiallv 
ii  coimnimily  and  not  an  indu^tii.d  piolilcm.  The  individual 
eriiployer,  however,  can  do  much  to  clinmiate  disease  and  pre- 
vent accidents  !)y  ])rovidinij:  saiiit.uy.  hygienic,  and  safe 
working;  conditions  with  rea'^onal)le  Ikmus  and  aileiiuate 
waK<'s.  Beyond  the  factory  or  o(li(  i'  Iniildinn  lie  hereditv, 
bad  haliits,  impure  foo<l  and  water,  uiis.imta.y  housing:,  and 
all  the  v,irious  causes  of  di-e.i^e  over  which  he  has  little 
direct  control      In  s|iitc  oi  tlu>  fact  empluyeis  are  rapidly 


ii 


liil  THE    lllMAX    FACTOR    IX    INDUSTRY 


(li<c(iv('riii:a  lli;it  tlicit  is  ;i  dollar  :iii<l  ccnls  n'tiini  fmm  pro- 
N'idiny;  iiicdiral  c.-H'c  tor  ciniiloycs,  a1  the  r()iii|)aii;>'  s  wlioii  or 
partial  cxpcaisc.  i'  cii  tlioujili  wr  ina\-  liojjc  some  i\;\:  tor 
l)iililic  prii\i--i"n  and  sii])('rvision  of  iicdical  tvv  for  tlu; 
entire  coiumiiiiity,  tlieic  will  always  he  a  I'e^idue  tor  wliich 
the  industrial  unit  -hould  lie  held  resi)oiisihl 

Pioneer  Corporations  in  Industrial  Medical  Care  — 
Railroads  were  ainonji  the  first  (o  consider  the  eare  ot  liieir 
employes.  As  early  as  IStiT  the  Sontlhin  I'aiilic  Railroad 
Company  icnted  a  residence  in  Sa  lameiito,  Caiil  'rnia,  for 
a  temporary  hospital  and  in  lS(i".)  hiiilt  the  fi  f  ho-pital  in 
this  eoimtry  foi'  the  caic  of  lailroad  t.npioyes.'  Lai.- 
corporations  wi  re  also  pioneers  in  iiu'cst'  "4  capital  in  medical 
care.  The  Ci  iiie  Cntupany  in  1SS('>  esi  iilished  oae  of  the 
first  sepaiate  medical  depaitments  in  any  imhi  1  i;d  concern, 
and  shortly  afterwards  liuilt  a  sanatoriiun  fiu  dis,ilile(|  em- 
ployes.'' In  the  nineties  the  Swift  Comi)an\-  installed  a  full- 
time  phy-ician  in  their  plant ,''  and  the  X;i  inal  ( 'ash  iJcL"  ter 
Company  hejian  the  physical  examination  of  cmplo\es  in 
i',)()l.'  Many  ('hica;j;o  coi])oiation<  undertook  the  medical 
caic  of  theii'  employes  after  the  campaiun  of  the  Tulierculosis 
In-iilutc  in  I'Ml,  which  -oUjihl  lir-'  and  foicmost  the  adop- 
tion of  an  examination  of  all  eniplo\'-  in  oriler  to  delect 
t  ulierculous  symptoms.  'rhirt\  firms  joined  in  ('(inferences 
held  liy  the  institute  and  the  cami)aiiiM  finally  re^oKctl  i'  elf 
into  one  for  the  adojition  of  a  ^ecirral  medical  exatninaiioti 
of  employe.s  in  oidei'  to  delect  any  disease  or  physical  defei  t . 
The  result  wa^  that,  in  three  ve.ars'  tmie  ;'Mrty-seven  firms 
had  joined  the  mo\ianiail,  lepi-e.-enlmii  IST.KHI  t  mployrs, 
and  the  entr.aiice  examination  wa^  adojiled  \>}  firms  coveriii):; 

"iS.llOO  eniplii.Ve-." 

Effect  of  Workmen's  Compensation  Laws  'i'hus  imtia- 
1i\('  on  the  part  of  indi\  idual  lirm-^  ha<  done  much  to  cstalilish 

pi(\enli\e  and  cni'ativc  medical  care  ot  enipln\cs  n^  a  func- 
tiiin    of    industi'v.      Hut    i-nl.ttcd   effoii'^   of   ihis   >ort    woald 


! 


!      :  ti 


MEDICAL   CMiE 


IGo 


li;iV(^  ilntic  '  ttl(>  to  pojuilari/c  t  he  iii<>\ciiiciit  had  it  iKit  hccti 
ioi  I  lie  I'lissajic  ol  WOikincii's  (  (iinpi'nsalinii  La\s>.  In  <  )iii<), 
for  instance,  idp  to  I'.M  i,  only  tmir  c-  al)lislun('iits  oui-idc 
of  the  railroails  cxainiiicd  applicants  for  work.  Williin  a 
year  atid  a  half  after  the  Wuiknien's  ( 'oinpensation  Law- 
went  into  effect,  forty-two  e>talihNhinents,  empioyinji  (;s, ,")()() 
persons,  had  installed  ih.'  physical  e.xaniitiat  ion  either  of 
api  cants  for  work,  or  of  all  employes,  or  Loth.'  ^Moreover, 
since  the  iiit  I'oduct ion  of  Workmen's  Compeir^al  ion  Laws 
the  oecupation.al  (hVe.ases  of  lead  .and  |)hosphorons  poisoning 
liave  attracted  -nllicienl  attention  to  Lrinti  ahout  lejiislatioii 
in  -ome  of  our  St;i1es  in  retiard  to  the  medical  i-ireof  workers 
in  trades  utilizin;i  these  mateiials. 

Progress  during  the  War.  —  Duiin^^  the  rtH'ent  war  f;;reat 
i'lipctils  w.is  jiiven  the  movement  to  consei've  the  labor 
power  of  the  country  throujih  the  promotion  of  itidustrial 
medicine,  in  addilioti  to  the  Pix  i-iou  of  Indu-tiial  ^L•dicine 
and  Hygiene  of  the  Lnited  St.ite--  I'uiilic  lie.dth  Service, 
orjranized  in  11)12,  similar  Lureaus  have  Leeii  organized 
since  LSI  t  by  the  Depaitment  of  I„il)or,  th."  Ordn.ince 
Dep.artment,  lii''  ILiilro.ad  Admini-t  rat  ion,  tin-  Shipping 
Hoai'd  and  the  < 'ouncil  of  National  I)el'en>e.  Six  meilical 
colleges  have  introduce(|  courxs  in  In(hi>trial  ilynietie,  and 
four  otlii'fs  aic  known  to  Le  contemjilat  iny;  such  courses.' 
Till  .\nieric,an  .\---ocial  ion  of  Indu-lrial  I'hy.-ician-^  and 
Sur^reons,  hirmecl  in  i()|.')  with  sevcnt\-ti\c  ch.irter  memhers, 
in   ItMS  numliiicd  three  hundred  .and  .-ixt\-.''' 

Evident  Value  of  Medical  Care.  The  movement  to  pre- 
vent ani'  1  ure  illnc^^  in  indiNiry  1/  providum  facilities  for 
ti'eatiiiiM  and  diaiiUo-i-^  ha-  now  liaiiu'd  >ui  li  momentum 
th.it  there  is  scarcel\-  need  to  uiiue  it>  \alue.  <  Iraphic  illus- 
ti'atiori  of  the  efVc  rl  of  such  health  ~uper\i--ion  in  reducing 
hwt  time  wa<  hiund  Lv  the  New  \i>\k  I  )cpartment  of  Health," 
which  noted  .a  markecl  rcductinii  and  Ly  the  Norton  ( 'om- 
|)any.      With    the  Norton  ( 'ompan>    the    use  of    the  di-peii- 


tl 


I  11 


166  THE    HUMAN   FACTOR    IX    IXDUSTRV 

saiy  is  voluntary,  hut  its  value  as  a  time  saver  is  great.  In 
one  year  it  was  t'ound  that  of  all  the  ni(>ri  who  lost  time 
from  sickness  or  accident,  those  who  a|)plied  to  the  hospital 
saved  an  averaj!;e  of  19.2  hours  per  man  per  month  over 
those  who  did  not  do  so.'- 

Some  plants  report  the  elimination  of  septic  infections  or 
hlood  poisoning  from  minor  accidents  hy  the  introduction 
of  emergency  eciuipment.  An  Oliio  manufacturer,  by  put- 
tinji;  in  an.  emergency  hospital,  I'cduced  absenteeism  due 
to  infection  from  six  cases  a  day  to  four  cases  a  month.  In 
one  year's  tinn'  the  emergency  liospital  of  a  New  York  de- 
partment store  reduced  absenteeism  by  more  than  72  per 
cent.'" 

Obvious  Benefit  of  Periodic  Physical  Examination.  — 
The  records  of  periodic  physical  examination  show  most 
clearly  the  inunediate  benefit  of  medical  car(>.  One  corpora- 
tion, ;is  an  exi)eriment,  gave  a  <areful  jjhysical  examination 
to  one  hun<lred  of  its  principal  cmplnycs  in  April,  lOlS,  and 
fiiliowed  this  witii  rei'xaminalioiis  in  September,  lOlS,  and 
IVbiuary,  1019.  Of  the  forty-nine  cmijloyes  reex.amined 
ill  Scnteuibcr.  .')9  per  icnt,  or  twenty-nine  t'lnployes,  showed 
impioveiiient  in  the  foliowiim  items:  '•• 

No.  1'ek  Ce.nt 

Blood  pressure 7  14 

LuiiKs 1  2 

I'llisc 1  2 

rriii.-il.Nsis 2  4 

Tell) 12  24 

l\V(s ;}  tj 

Kars 2  4 

Wciirhl II  22 

< 'oiisiip.itioii         2  4 

I'trsoiiiil  liNniciic 2  4 


In     I-'cliiU'iry,     lliirty-niic    iif    tlii<c    (■ini>;ii\-es    were    again 
checke(i  up  ;uid  iiiiprnwiiiciit  iiutcd  a-  tnjldus; 


■N. 


MEDICAL   CAFU: 


167 


N'o.  Per  Tent 

Blood  pressure 10  H2 

Tdeth 5  H) 

Skin 1  .} 

Weight 2  6 

Diet 1  3 

The  Mctropnlitan  Life  Insiiruiico  Company,  in  thn  first 
examination  of  their  ciiiployos,  found  marked  (lef(M-ts  of 
heart,  hinp:,  or  ki(hiev  in  two  hundred  and  fifty-five  out  of 
every  one  thousand  men  examiiKMJ.  Only  f7  [jcrcent  oftliese 
rases  of  impairnicnt  persisted  at  tlu>  time  of  tlie  second  ( x- 
amination,  one  year  later.'''  The  New  York  ('ity  Depart- 
ment of  Health  found  decided  improvement  after  one  year 
in  10  per  cent  of  the  eases  of  impairment  and  amonji  the 
first  twenty-four  men  reexamined  wereth(>  following  inter- 
esting eases  : '" 

Cask  [.  Age  IS;  first  examination,  June.  1911:  weitrlit  ISO 
pounds;  not  well;  short  of  linalh;  pidsc  II'J;  heart  eidarH;('il. 
.Sci-ond  examination  ;  St  plctiilicr,  I'.M.");  u(if,rtit  110  pounds;  looks 
and  fci'ls  well  :    no  shortness  of  hreath. 

Cask  11.  \fxo  22;  first  (>xamin;ition,  June.  1014;  weight  r?."> 
pounfis;  rapid  abnormal  heart  sounds;  some  sliortnes-;  of  hreath; 
pulse  101.  Second  examination,  .September,  1915;  feels  and  looks 
better;    weight   I  17  pounds;    pulse  9fi. 

Among  tlie  wonu'n  were  tlie  following: 

Cask  III.  Tubereuhar  lesion  found  on  examiiuition.  Had 
leave  of  absence  for  .">  moiuhs.  Now  b.ick  at  work.  Cain  in  weij^'ht 
retained,   and   pulmonary  condition   satisfactory. 

Cask  \'I.  On  examination  a  \al\n!ar  heart  nurmiir  \\;is  found, 
vsith  dys|)noeti  after  exercise.  \\'a>  not  auare  of  le^ion  until  dis- 
closed by  examination,  lias  been  \(r\  e.infni  -^inee  tin  n  not  to 
overstrain  heart,  and  is  now    in  excellent   conditicpn. 

C\-^K  VII.  On  ex.-iminal  ion  a  patient  w;is  fonnd  atuemic, 
liuriiontobin  In  per  eent,  pain  in  eardi.ie  rir;ioii,  s\~lolic  he.-irt 
murmur:  looke<I  and  felt  ■  nk.  \Va^  ,ii|\i~e(l.  On  rrexaminalion, 
hanioirlol.  I  had  reached  •'Ml  per  citil  ;  tliere  v\as  id  cardiac  pain, 
no  heart    uurmur,  and  there  was  j^reat  iinpro\enKnl  in  appearance. 


■     Ml 


U 


lOs 


TIIK    HUMAN'    FA("T()1{    IN'    INDUSTRY 


Needed  Development.  — Wo  uwait  a  .Icvclopment  and  ro- 
onliiKition  of  puhlic  and  industrial  iicaltli  aficncics  to  tnako 
effoctivo  the  projirani  proposed  hy  (lie  Divi-ion  of  Industrial 
Hygiene  and  Medicine  of  the  Workiny:  ('onditions  Serviee 
of  the  Department  of  LaI)or  in  I'JIO,  which  includes  (1)  pif)- 
vision  for  instruction  iti  prev(>ntion  of  dis(>ase,  (2)  health 
supervision  for  all  recication  and  anuisements  in  industriid 
plants,  C.i)  study  of  ade([uate  laws  jroverninj!;  sanitation, 
fooil,  milk,  water  sup|)lies  and  housinji,  (1)  installation  and 
sup(>rvi>^ion  of  departments  of  healtli  and  sanitation  in  indus- 
trial centers,  (."))  educational  sei'vicc  for  the  peo|)le  of  iiuhis- 
trial  centers. '7  To  some  extent,  liowever,  al'out  S,()()(),()00 
of  th(>  nation's  workers  h;ive  ahcady  been  affected  hy  em- 
ployers' efforts  to  improve  heaHIi  conditions.'  Tlier(>  still 
remain  .some  ;3U,()()(), ()()()  wage  earners  \v!ic  have  not  been 
touched. 

MkDK  AL    EX.\MI NATIONS 

Medical  Examinations  the  Keystone.  —  In  some  industries 
examinations  are  made  only  I'V  retpiot.  In  otliers  they  are 
reciuired  ]  'iodieally  by  1  lie  week,  motitli,  or  year,  or  on  such 
occasions  ,  entranc(\  j)romolion  and  rei'mployment ,  or 
after  .any  alisence  dui"  1o  ilhu'ss  or  .accident,  .as  the  n.atiu'o 
of  tile  oc(ai|);ition  oi-  tiie  jndnin(ai'  of  the  employe  r  or  medical 
su|)ervisor  dictate^.  Thi'  keystone  of  previiitive  medical 
work  in  industry  is  tlic  (ai'iaiice  ;ind  p(-riodic  ex.aminatiou 
of  em))loye<.  The  piir|)o<e  of  .-uch  examinal ion-;  i-  often 
misunderstood  liy  emplovia'  ,ai:d  employe.  ( 'omp(aisaf  ion 
laws,  it  i-  claimed,  have  c.au'^ed  eiu|)loyers  to  u>e  the  phy-acal 
examination  as  a  means  of  elimin.it inji  "risks,""  and  th(> 
result  li.i<  been  the  exclii-ion  of  efiicient  a])plicaiits  and  an 
attitude  of  di-l  Ml- 1  iict  Wi'cti  employe  mkI  em  plo\er.  It  does 
not  neces>:iiily  follow  that  the  physically  less  perfect  em- 
ploNcs  are  "  risk-  "  This  is  indicated  not  only  by  th"  experi- 
ence ot  .Vnieiicaii  manufacturers  such  as  the  .\very  Company 


MEDICAL    CAKK 


169 


but  hy  reports  of  tlic  British  Health  of  Munitions  Workers 
('otHii)ittee.  Tliese  sliow  a  ciuiiparalively  low  rate  of 
areideiits  aiuoiiti  the  less  health\'  workers.  Aiiioiii^  1042 
men,  accidents  alTected  7  |)er  cent  (if  tluxe  in  A,  the  highest 
health  <;roup.  with  an  averajie  loss  of  twenty-six  days  a  year, 
and  in  heallli  jjroups  R,  C.  and  D,  I  per  cent,  with  an  aver- 
age loss  of  twenty-four  days.''* 

Placement,  not  Rejection,  the  Purpose  of  Entrance  Exami- 
nation. -  The  purpose  of  the  c-ntrance  examinations  should 
not  he  to  reject  or  discliarj;;e  the  <;reat  number  of  applicants 
or  employes  who  are  physically  imi)erfi>ct,  but  to  prevent 
their  employment  in  parti(ailar  kinds  of  work  for  wliich  they 
are  (iis(iualified.  Sjiecific  iuipairmeiits  will  render  the  appli- 
cant unfit  for  specific  work,  althoujih  any  one  imjjairment, 
ov(>n  a  comparatively  serious  one.  does  not  discjualify  the 
applicant  for  all  work.  In  som(>  cases  it  is  even  pos,>ible  that 
the  company  physician  may  so  advise  an  applicant  how  to 
correct  a  diseased  oi  defective  condition  that  lie  may  later 
take  up  work  with  the  firm.  Properly  placed,  the  physically 
imperfect  employe  may  be  an  asset  to  ids  employer  because 
of  his  comparative  stability  and  his  disinclination  to  leave 
work  in  wliich  he  is  makiiiff  ji;ood. 

Tli(>ie  will  always  be  an  irreducibl(>  minimum  of  rejections 
of  applicants  for  work  because  of  their  physical  condition. 
But  the  use  of  the  physical  examination  as  a  basis  of  discrimi- 
nation ajrainst  the  physically  incapacitated  in  <"itlier  emjiloy- 
iiient  or  promotion  may  be  a  boomeraiiu;  td  tli(»  employer. 
It  arouses  the  antajionism  and  distrust  of  the  employes. 
The  purpose  of  the  examination  to  jilace  and  keep  the 
employe  in  work  for  which  lie  is  physically  ([ualifieil,  not  to 
shut  him  out  from  all  occupations  —  must  be  reiterated 
ajijain  and  aj.^ain. 

Kind  of  Examination.  —  The  form  of  th(>  entrance  exami- 
nation is  usually  that  of  the  insm.ince  company  or  of  the 
army.     In  deciding;  the  length  and  nature  (if  the  examination 


.     4 


I 


lii 


170 


TllK    HUMAX    FACTOR    IN'    INDUSTRY 


(he  applicanl's   p^i 


III 


view  must    lie  cotisidcnMl.     From 


twenty  to  thirty  iiiiiiulcs  suiiicc  lor  the  insurance  type  of 
examination.  Too  louji  and  extiaisive  an  examination  will 
keep  away  applicants,  hut  fi  <v  some  occupatinns,  sucli  a.s  those 
involving  the  liandliny:  of  food  pioducts,  or  foi'  work  requir- 
ing constant  slandiiiji'  or  walkinsi,  examinations  })elow  the 
waist  are  n(>c(>ssary.  In  the  examination  of  female  employes 
a  nurse  should  iie  in  attendance  unless  the  doctor  is  a  woman. 

Standard  Examinations.  —  The  standards  for  jihysieal 
examinatioi  ~  for  various  positions,  prepared  by  the  Municipal 
Civil  Service  ConuMission  of  New  York  f'ity  in  lOK),  are 
valuable  Ix'caiise  they  rec(,iinizc  their  different  require- 
ments and  specify  the  jiart  i -iilar  disciualifyiiifi  defects.  The 
types  of  positions  for  which  examinations  were  prepared 
were  (!)  clerical  and  stenojiiaphic,  (2)  positions  in  the 
inspect ional  s(>ivice  i('(|uirinj.;  the  moderate  deiiree  of  physi- 
cal ability  needed  in  walkiiiii  lonu;  distances  or  carrying 
lijiht  loads,  (;})  positions  involviiijf  the  hiu;li  dejiree  of  physical 
effort  needed  in  the  performance  of  s<>vere  Uianual  labor  or 
i^ucii  daii<i(>rous  work  as  that  of  the  blacksmith  or  boiler 
maker,  and  (4)  positions  in  the  police  and  firo  service  demand- 
ing the  highest  ])hysical  ability.'' 

Examination  by  Outside  Doctor  Unsatisfactory.  —  Medical 
certificates  frotn  outside  doctors  do  not  take  the  place  of 
systematic  examinations  m;ide  liy  the  industrial  physician. 
One  dishonest  doctor  in  a  community  will  negate  their  entire 
purpose,  while  insufficient  information  as  to  the  needs  of  the 
industry  will  render  the  certilicate  of  little  value.  To  some 
extent  tliese  difll(ailtics  may  be  obviated  if  standardized 
medical  certificate  and  examination  forms  for  each  occupa- 
tion are  used  by  all  doctors  in  the  neighl)orhoo(l,  and  the 
reports  sulimiited  to  the  employer.  But  both  time  and 
money  ;iie  saved  wliere  the  firm  is  large  enough  to  warrant 
a  full-time  examining  physici;in  or  where  a  group  of  small 
firms  can  combine  in  employing  a  full-time  medical  statf. 


:r ;;  ( 


MEDICAL  CARE 


171 


Failure  of  Deferred  Examination.  Oorasinnally  a  com- 
pany tries  to  savo  expense  by  giving  a  superticial  exami- 
nation of  the  applicant  for  work  and  following  this  ii])  with 
a  more  searching  one  after  the  employe  has  proved  his 
suitaliility  and  liking  for  hi^  work.  This  method  does  not 
seem  advisable.  The  value  of  the  examination  is  to  i)re\ent 
the  introduction  of  tuberculosis  and  other  infections  and 
contagious  di-' ases  by  tlie  new  employe  and  to  place  him 
from  the  start  in  work  for  which  he  is  pliysically  (lualified, 
thus  obviating  the  cost  to  employer  and  employe  of  transfer 
or  discharge. 

Value  of  Periodic  Examination.  —  The  value  of  pcMiodic- 
physical  examination-  is  evident  from  an  investigation  made 
in-  Mr.  .\lexandcr.  In  nineteen  metal-trade  establishments 
with  medical  departments  the  ratio  of  medical  cases  to  the 
total  number  of  surgical  and  medical  cases  averaged  22.32  per 
cent.  But  in  plants  with  a  yearly  examination  this  propor- 
tion of  medical  cases  was  reduced  by  1'^  per  cent  ;  in  plants 
with  a  semi-amiual  examination,  l)y  o  jier  cent  ;  in  those 
with  a  (luarterly  or  every  four  months  examination,  by 
nearly  7")  per  cent.-"  The  more  frciiucnt  tlH>  examination, 
the  less  frecjuent  (he  ilhu'ss  incidence,  and  for  this  reason, 
at  least,  tin-  yearly  rei'xamination  is  imperative-  in  any 
industry.  It  is  rendered  of  far  greater  valut"  when  supple- 
mented by  ol)servation  and  the  examination  of  ail  employes 
returning  from  a  sickness  al>sence  and  a  more  freipient  re- 
examination of  those  predisposed  to  disease,  or  below  par 
gen(>rally,  or  c-xposed  t<i  occupational  poisonings.  This  is 
done  by  one  iirm  in  Chicago  emi)loying  10, (MK)  men  and 
women,  and  suspicious  c.asc-s  an>  filed  separately  under  "  re- 
examinations." The  doctor  calls  such  employes  as  often 
as  lie  thinks  neccss.ary.  When  a  case  requii'cs  a  daily  tem- 
p(-ratui-e  and  pul<e  cliart  it  i<  made  out  by  the  muse  every 
morning  .and  night  U:v  a  short  pciiod.  and  if  trouble  is  indi- 
catetl  a  tliorouiih  diagno>i-  is  made.^' 


MICROCOPY    RESOLUTION    TEST    CHART 

ANSI  ond  IjO  test  chart  No    2 


1.0 


I.I 


1.25 


''  1^  HI  2.5 
^  1^  III  2^ 
^    t*o     IIIII2.0 


1.4 


1.8 


16 


^     /IPPLIED  IISA^GE 


lft*>\    fqcf    M'-; 


172  TIIK    HUMAN    F.\("r()R    [X    INDUSTRY 

Introduction  of  Periodic  Examinations.  —  Many  plants 
have  siUTOssfiilly  In+nKluced  a  syshMii  of  pt-riodic  oxaini- 
nations  by  hojiinni-  :  witli  tlu>  inanaixcMial  staff  and  tlie  heads 
of  dopartinonts  l)cf()r(>  cxaniininu  the  mIIht  employes.  Show- 
inji  no  (liscriniinatiori  b-tween  oxccutives  and  subordinates 
j^^ains  the  einploye^^'  confidence.  Witli  a  httle  foresight  and 
tact  any  company  should  be  abh-  to  e(iual  the  record  of  tlie 
International  Harvester  Company,  where,  out  of  a  total  of 
2n,0()()  examinations  made  in  three  years,  only  20  emi)loyes 
objected  to  the  examination,  and  these  waived  their  objec- 
tions when   its  purpose^  w:>s  explained. -'- 

The  Sears  Roebuck  Uonipaiiy  chose  a  wi.se  course 
when  institufiiiii  the  periodic  i)hy>ical  examination  of  their 
employes  in  1<»1  t.  Of  the  l.-.,!,-)I  (.mi)loyes  e.-:amine(l  in  one 
year,  27  p(T  cent  were  found  with  a  definitely  diseased  con- 
dition. None  of  these  was  diseh.arjfed.  Many  >vere  jriven 
vacations,  or  fi'ee  hospital  and  sanatorium  care.  Some 
were  referred  to  their  f.iinily  physicians  and  others  cared 
for  by  the  comp.iny  doctors.-* 

Examinations  Confidential.  —  It  is  well  to  stress  the  con- 
fidential nature  of  the  e\,imin;ition.  With  the  New  York 
Department  of  Health  ;dl  medi(  al  records  are  held  conhden- 
tial  by  the  medical  department  .and  ai(-  never  n'hared  to 
in  ciscs  of  promotion.-'  The  .\nierican  Teleph.otie  and 
Tcle^r|;,|,li  ('(iinpany  nmnber  all  the  iccoids  of  the  medical 
dep.irtmeiit,  ;ind  the  corresponding  list  of  names  is  held  (,nly 
by  the  physician   in  chaiue.-' 

Publicity  a  Substitute  for  Compulsion.  The  fx-riodie 
examinatio?!  need  not  lie  made  compulsory  if  its  purpose  and 
v.alue  as  :i  licdtli  m.iinteii.inee  me.a sine  are  well  ad\crtise(L 
The  emplo\(<  w  ill  i)robably  respond  to  the  ijoeioi  "s  summons 
more  readily  if  the  emplo\er's  m.ind.ale  i-  not  attached  and 
will  value  thi'  dnrt,,!-'-  advice  niore.  Unless  the  emfiloyrs 
are  themselves  in  coiil  rol  ,,\'  ihe  medii'.al  department  and  its 
policies,  (ompubinu  in  edimectiou  with  the   reexamination 


MEDICAL   CARE 


173 


may  brood  a  siispicidii  of  tiie  employer's  motives  in  thus 
watching  the  employes. 


lERT,. 


The  Plant  Medical  Equipment 

Kind  of  Medical  Equipment  Needed.  —  Tlio  kind  of 
niodic.'d  (■(Hiipincnt  necfjed  in  a  plant  will  depend  on  the 
nature  of  tli(>  industry  and  the  ratio  of  medical  and  surj^ical 
treatments  called  for.  With  a  clerical  force  mnnliering  ahout 
five  thousand,  the  Metropolitan  Life  Insurance  ('omi)any  in 
1917  had  an  avorajic*  of  one  hundred  and  five  daily  visits  to 
the  dispensary,  calling  for  t\vic>  as  many  medical  as  sur- 
flical  treatments.  In  nineteen  inc  iai-trade  esfahli.shments, 
on  the  contrary,  the  proportions  of  medical  to  surgical  cases 
is  one  to  four.^" 

Emergency  Equipment.  —  First -aid  work  with  emergency 
equipment  is  becoming  standardized.  Some  States  reciuiro 
the  first-aid  kit  in  factories,  workshops  and  mercantile 
establishments.  Then>  are  all  degrees  of  elaboration  in 
first-aid  e(iuipnient,  from  the  soiled  roll  of  bandaging  gauze 
which  stands  pei-eimially  intact  in  tiie  corner  of  an  office 
shelf  to  the  emergency  hospital  and  operating  room  with  its 
attendant  staff  of  surgeons  and  nurses. 

First-Aid  Kits.  -  The  instructioiis  printed  on  tlie  cover 
of  the  first-;iid  cal)inets  useil  in  tlie  X'ickers  Liniit(>d  factories, 
one  of  the  largest  munitions  plants  iti  England,  describe  a 
kit  which  proved  adeciuate  dining  three  years'  war  <'X|)eri- 
ence.     One  such  kit   is  provideil  for  every  .')()  employes.-'"' 

1.    Forrrps,     Ut     re-      1.    This   /•'//,s/-.| /./  Cnhnnl   is   to  To        lipply 

move    anil    tiolil  lie  ii>;('i|   only   in   \crv  slit;lil  al)o\  i-a  pro- 

injiiric"<.  .nul  only  in  parl>  of  riiM>fvl)lcf(|- 

tlic     r.'ictory      V(r\     rrniotc  inu'     woiinil. 
from  tli(<  works  surjjcry. 


iln>ssini;s  .'.ind 
to  cali'li  artery 
ill  Krave  etiicr- 
Hfiii'v  only  by 
surKcou). 


Till'   p:i(l    to 

lie         [il.c  ic| 

o  V  ('  r  t  li  o 
iicarcsl  arli- 
riul  {loint. 


174 


THE   HUMAN'    FACTOR    [V    INDUSTRY 


2.   Srissnrs.       to     2.   All    anrrr  wnun>ls,   i.e.   hlood- 
open        packets,         inR,  fr.ipinR,  with  loss  of  tis- 
sue,    or    deep,    sevcTe,     and 
painful   burns   to   go    to   the 
works  surgery. 


etc. 


3.    ^frf„l  flnl,lrr. 

eontaiitinj:  sterile 
eye  brushes 
(covered  with 
wool) . 


Bottle  of  Ei/r 
A  p  pli  c  n I i 0 n 
(cocai...j,  castor 
oil,  .")  per  cent 
percliloride,    1- 

;{(HM)). 


■'{.   The    ilrrsfiing    pnrkils    to   be 
HMiioved   and    held    only    by 
(he    fiireeps     (I),    cut    oijen 
with  scisxirs  (2). 
X.    H.  —  Finders   must    not 
be  used  to  pick  out  packets. 

4.  W'oini'l.i  must  not  bo 
washed  or  tnuched  with 
anytliintr.  Simply  paint 
wilii  iodine  solution  (,1),  or 
with  eollodion  ^t)),  then  a 
large  (jr  small  dressing. 


5.   Hiittli  of  foih'nr  ■').   fiiirris   nnd   snihls,    apply   a 

Sohiiioii,  -J  per  large  or  small  burn  dressing 

cent     to    paint  at  once, 
wounds. 


6.  Rotilr  of  Cnllo- 
liion,  to  apply 
over  very 
sligjit  wounds 
wliirli  neitiier 
bleed  nor  gape. 


<>.  R'lP  injuring.  No  particle 
must  be  picked  out  of  tlleeyo 
with  any  sharp  instrument. 
It  i-  only  idlowable  to  brush 
tile  |)arlicle  out  with  one  of 
the  sterile  brushes  (:{)  on 
uliieh  drop  a  few  drops  of 
eye  solution  ;  (  I )  if  still 
painful  ora  particle  remains, 
go  to  the  works  surgery. 

7.  I{i-ilii  ftsnii/s  allowed  only  of 
ver\- sli(,'lil  injuries,  where  no 
pain,  swelliug,  discharge  or 
rc'ilness. 

8.  All  cases  dealt  with  hero 
inu-t      be     eiilerrd      on      the 

register  attached. 


MEDICAL   CARE 


175 


Diffcront  kits  will  ho  iieiHlcd  in  (lilToroiit  industries,  liow- 
ovor.  Dr.  Mock,  after  a  sp(M'ial  study  of  industrial  accidents, 
has  rccoinineiided  tlie  foUowiuf!;  contents  for  a  first-aid  kit: 
(1)  a  bottle  of  tincture  of  iodine  (5  per  cent)  ;  (2)  a  bottle 
of  applicat(jrs  ;  (3)  a  l)unch  of  sl(>rilized  (li('ssii\"s  put  up 
singly  in  paper  envelopes;  (1)  a  few  large  sterilized  pads  to 
be  used  in  case  '.f  hemorrhage  or  large  wounds  ;  (5)  bandages 
and  a  constrictor  of  stout  muslin,  which  is  safer  in  the  hands 
of  a  layman  than  a  rubber  tournicjui't  ;  (0)  a  i)ottIe  of 
aromatic  spirits  of  anunonia.  A  sign  on  the  First-Aid  Box 
warns  the  employes  that  it  is  for  first-aid  only,  and  that  every 
injured  employe  should  go  to  the  tloctor's  office  at  once,  no 
matter  how  slight  the  injury.  Dr.  Mock  reports  a  reduction 
in  infections  in  one  industry  from  28.(1  of  all  accidents  to 
10  per  cent,  after  the  introduction  of  the  use  of  tincture  of 
ioiiine  in  the  first-aid  treatment.-'' 

Model  Emergency  Equipment.  —  Miss  Whitney,  after 
snaking  an  investigation  of  medical  equipm(>nt  in  factories 
for  the  L'nited  States  Bureau  of  Labor  Statistics  in  1917, 
describes  the  foll(,wing  model  emergency  e(juipment  :  " 

P'or  a  eonipany  liavintr  a  liiiiitcil  amoiitU  of  space  and  wishins  to 
install  eriiprK<'ncy  t'qiii|)iut'iil  at  a  inodcratc  cost,  one  room  tiiat  was 
('(luipiwd  at.  an  approximate  cost  of  .?!()(«)  was  almost  a  model  of 
its  kind.  The  floor  of  nit.her  tilinf,'  cost  .?:{,'>().  The  plumbing, 
which  was  of  the  most  mii<lern  type,  llavin^r  l<net>  pressure  faucets 
and  all  the  tittinjjs  of  the  hest  porcelain,  cost  !?_'"i().  The  rest  of  the 
equi[)ment,  consist intr  of  two  medic. no  cahiiu'ts,  an  instrument 
cabinet,  a  porcelain  operaliuu  lab,  an  electric  instantan(>ous  heater 
for  use  in  case  the  other  hol-water  supply  -  loidd  fail,  an  electrio 
warminj;-pan,  a  sanitary  cot,  and  a  sanitary  screen  by  which  lh»^  cot 
can  be  ("iitirely  shut  ofT  from  the  rest  of  the  room,  was  furnished  at 
the  cost  of  about  $M). 

A  description  of  an  elaborate  emergency  equipment 
which  has  been  i)ractic:dly  stimdardized  by  one  larg(>  com- 
pany a:i'l  which  may  Ije  modified  (o  meet  the  needs  of  indi- 
vidual plants,  is  us  follows  : 


17G 


THE    HUMAX    FACTOR    IX    INDUSTRY 


All  intiTJor  woodwork  is  liiiisliofl  with  sufiifiont  minihor  of  coats 
of  i)aiiil  and  ciiaintl  lo  ^ivc  a  linisii  wliich  can  easily  \m  washed  and 
kept  (kail.  TIk'  oprratiiitr,  n'-drL-ssiiij,',  and  hath  rooms  have  a  tile 
or  vitralitf  waiiiscotitii,',  and  the  lloors  are  of  marble  ehips  set  in 
cement.  This  is  i)referalile  (o  a  tile  tioorint,',  as  tile  where  subject 
to  rough  usa^'e  beconus  jrrav  and  porous  and  thus  iiiort^  difiicult  to 
keep  in  a  .sanitary  condition.  Steel  enamel  chairs  and  tables  are 
used  in  prefcTence  to  wood,  as  they  are  more  sanitary  and  wear 
better.  The  re-dressinj;  room  iN  used  for  the  re-<lressin^' of  all  cases 
and  for  minor  injuries  and  medical  cases.  The  equipment  here 
consists  of  a  washstand  with  knee  or  foot  faucet  attachments,  a 
foot  bath,  medicine  and  instrunuMit  ca])inets,  bottle  rack  for  anti- 
septi(!  solutions,  basin  stands,  instrunu'nt  t.terili/.ers,  dressing 
carria^re  tabhjs,  chairs  and  nurse's  desk,  Justrite  pail,  and  the  neces- 
sary surgical  instrunu'iits. 

The  operating  room  is  equipped  similarly  to  the  re-dressing  room, 
with  the  ad<lition  of  high-pressure  steam,  hot  and  cold  water,  in- 
strument and  utensil  sterilizer.  The  wards  or  recovery  rooms  are 
equii)ped  with  beds,  tables,  and  ch.iirs.  I'.eds  are  furnished  with 
electri<-  warming  biaid^ets  and  healing  pads.  Tiie  .\-ray  and 
laboratory  room  is  used  for  diagnosis  of  fractures  and  diseases. 

A  toilet  is  !i  necessary  accoinpaniiiK'nt  of  the  emergency 
room. 

Complete  Medical  Department.  —  But  tlio  omorgency 
etniipmcnt  fills  only  puit  of  the  needs  of  a  working!;  force. 
In  small  plants  one  room  may  snfHce  for  all  medical  work, 
while  lai'jic  plants  often  hav  scpnrate  l)uildinjrs  for  the 
medical  dei)artmrnts,  like  that  of  Crane  Company,  where  a 
oii(<-story  l)iiil(lin{r  inchid"s  rooms  for  consullation,  treat- 
ment, dressings,  ^terilizinji,  examinations,  opeiating;,  .\-ray, 
lalioiatory,  and  a  rest  room.'"*  The  coiumiftci'  on  Medical 
Sn|)ervi>ion  of  the  Detroit  I']mploycrs' .\ssociat  ion  est  ima ted 
that  tile  mcijicil  department  for  a  unit  of  1  100  to  2000  em- 
ployes re(|uiies  three  rooms,-  a  reception  loom,  an  examin- 
ing; room   and  :i   Mngery  or  dressing  room.--' 

An  analy-~is  of  the  medical  ;itid  singical  fai'ilitics  for  em- 
ployes offered   hy  till'  medical   departments  of  one  Inindred 


MED  I  CM,    CARE 


177 


and  seventy  industrial  establishments  in  the  Eastern  and 
Middle  Western  States  in  1918  lists  in  order  of  the  fre- 
quency of  their  oceurrenee,  dn>ssing  rooms  (the  only  room 
common  toall  of  the  establishments),  waiting  rooms,  doctors' 
offices,  physical  examination  rooms,  wards,  operating  rooms, 
store  rooms.  X-ray  rooms,  lahoratoiies,  clerical  offices, 
dental  offices,  st(>rilizing  rooms,  dark  rooms,  special  exami- 
nation and  treatm(>nt  rooms,  attendants'  rooms,  recovery 
rooms,  and  toilets.* 

Dk.ntal  Clinics 

Dental  Clinics  Popular.  —  .\  r(>c<>nt  survey  revealed  rlental 
clinics  in  sixty  Large  industrial  coiiceins  in  the  I'liited  States.'*'^ 
TV'i  scope  of  their  woik  varies  considerably,  in  some  plants 
including  only  examination  ;ind  jjiophylaxis ;  in  others 
examination,  prophylaxis,  and  fillings,  or  all  types  of  dcn- 
ti.stry;  and  in  a  few  inst.mces  dental  care  is  extended  to  the 
children  of  employes.  The  woik  is  done  at  (Mther  the  em- 
ployer's or  employe's  expense  and  in  the  employer's  or  em- 
I)loye's  time. 

Economy  of  Dental  Clinic.  —  The  value  of  the  dental 
clinic  is  indicat(>d  by  the  experience  of  flu-  B.  1''.  (loodricli 
Company  of  Akron,  Oliio,  wiiere  onI\-  lOOO  of  LM,('(I(1  em- 
pIoy(>s  examined  in  191.")  did  not  need  dental  attention."' 
The  Metropolitan  l.ii'e  Insur.ance  Coinjjany  in  1917  madi^ 
3101  examin.ations  and  cleansings  in  the  company's  time 
and  free  of  cost,;ind  in  a(i(htion  licati-d  19.")()  eineigeney 
cases.'-  These  lattci'  ;dnne  would  have  meant  a  loss  of  at 
least  half  ;i  d.ay's  time  in  e.icli  e.ise  li.id  llie  comp.any  dis- 
pensary not  1 n  .'U  .lilable, 

.\n  interesting  (■.■i-m'  i.f  ;i  clerk  in  a  filing  seclicm  of  the 
Metropolitan    I, if.-    ln,^nran«'i-  ('unijiMiiv    i>   reporied   !iy   liie 

♦For  flosiTiptidii  of  tlic-ii'  nil' lir:'l  (l.'|.;irliiM-iits  iinil  n  di-pcri^ary  ('<iiii|i- 
ninnt    :ip|ir(i\ril    l.y    llir    I'liili'.!    Seilc-    I'ulilir    Ilc.illli    Sit\  |.  !•    -.ci' ;     I'lihlic 


.  1    1 1 . .  1 1 


178 


THE    HUMAN    FACTOR    IN    INDUSTRY 


Dental  Division.  After  l)eins  with  the  company  for  several 
years  and  never  having'  a  satisfactory  atteiuhuice  record  the 
clerk  was  finally  referred  to  the  Medical  Division  hecause 
rihe  showed  fatij^ce  early  in  the  niorninjr  and  sufTered  from 
sciatica  and  neuritis.  She  had  lost  thirty  pounds  in  two 
years  and  was  sul)ject  to  frecjuent  attacks  of  tonsilitis  and 
headaches.  A  radiograph  examination  showed  three  in- 
fected teeth  which  were  suhsiHiuently  (wtracted.  The 
rheumatism  and  neuritis  attacks  practically  ceased  and, 
at  the  date  of  report in>>:  the  case,  for  oii,>  yoar  this  clerk  had 
had  a  perfect  attendance  record  for  the  first  time  in  her 
employment. 

Undouhteilly  there  is  a  clo.se  relation  l)otween  absenteeism 
and  bad  teeth,  tIioufz;h  comi)ar;>.tive  statistics  are  not  avail- 
able. The  following-  table  prepared  by  Dr.  Flyatt  shows  the 
possible  effect  which  absces.sed  or  infected  teeth  and  gums 
had  on  the  health  of  the  employes  of  the  Metropolitan 
Life  Insm-ance  Company,  as  revealed  in  the  meilical  and 
dental  exam inat ions. •'■^ 


Disease  on  Condition 


NouralRia  and  Neuritis 

Hoadaclio 

.\er\  ..iisncss 

<'(il(ls  and  Nusal  Fos.sa' 

Fiiriiiiclfs 

Ahsccs!;  and  Skin  Trouhli* 
All)uiuinuria 


No  SERTors 

f'OMllTloN 
DlM(OVKIi?;D 


1!) 

17 

19.S 

•2.4 

2.n 


Radio- 

Showi\(i 

ISKKCnoN 


4.2 

2.9 

.{.7 

2;j.  1 

:i.H 

4  0 
1.1 


Cases 
Showi.no 

lil.IND 

.\b»LL88 


8.3 
3.2 
4.5 
236 
4.5 
4.5 
3.3 


Treatment  Offered. 


.\d\i('e  a^  to  the  needed 


repairs  and 


pr(»|)liyiaxis  ru,i\  be  nJven  ;it  the  time  of  the  ent  r.ani'i'  ex- 
amination. 'I'lie  preliminary  exaiTiination  is  nfleii  the  only 
dental  care  afforded  oti.  the  f;)ctni\-  memlwMc    (i,,.,>„i.  >.., 


■I 


MEDICAL   CARE 


179 


times  accoiiipaiuod  by  simple  propliyhu'tic  troatmont.     The 
Avery   Company   distributes   (>(luc;'ti()n;d    bulletins  on    the 
care  of  the  teeth,  and  the  Crane  Comjjany  sometimes  holds 
up  an  applicant  for  employment  until  the  needed  work  is 
done.     In    the  Joseph  and   Feiss    Comjjany  the    patient  is 
given  a  chart  which  states  the  proljable  cost  of  the  work 
needed.     The  dentist  visits  the  factory  one  morning  a  week, 
l)ringing  his  own  instrunicnts,  whil(>  the  company  furnishes 
the  chair,  foot  engine,  and  other  equipment.     The  majoritv 
of   the   employes   go    to  the  company's  dentist  for  further 
work,  though  they  are  not  urged  to  do  so.'"     In  the  Metro- 
politan Life  Insurance  Company,   X-rays  are  made  at  the 
time  of   the    entrance    examination    if  a  serious    condition 
is    suspectetl.^-     The  Armstrong    Cork    Company  of    Pitts- 
burgh gives  the  employe   examination,   cleansing,   and  fill- 
ings   at    the   company's   expense,    and    in    the   company's 
time.     The    Khnberly    Clark   Company  of   Neenah,    Wis., 
insures  the    proper   care   of   the   teeth  of   its   employes  by 
paying  25  per  cent  of  all  employes'  dentists'  bills  whieh  are  in 
ad(htion  to  the  original  inspection  made  by  the  company's 
dentist,  at  the  company's  (>xpense. 

Cost  of  Treatment.  —  The  cost  of  dental  service  with  the 
Armstn.ng  Cork  ""ompany  of  Pittsburgh,  Pa.,  where  about 
2U)()  patients  a  year  receive  on  an  average  of  one  hour's 
attention,  was  ?.-)0()0  in  lOKi.'''^  Th(>  initial  cost  of  the 
clinical  eciuipment  of  the  Metropolitan  Life  Insurance 
Company  was  -SIOST.U  in  HUt..  In  191S  rmming  (>x|)enses 
were  $2()19.(i7  and  salaries  l?lS,9ir).()(i.  Where  the  com- 
pany's off.-r  of  a  bieimial  examination  a.nd  prophylactic  treat- 
ment is  accepted,  it  cost  the  company  in  1910,  $2.33  per  pa- 
tient per  amuim.^' 

OrricAL  Clink  s 

Visual  Defects  Common. —  The  recent  statistics  of  the 
United  States  drafted  army  show  the  importance  of  the  clinic 


<■  ■■ 

i 

If  J 

• 

180 


THE    IIUMAX    FACTOR    IX    IXDUSTRY 


which  makes  ^ood  ojitic.-il  ciirc  accessible  to  the  employe 
without  jiTcat  expenditure  of  time  and  money.  Twenty-two 
per  cent  of  the  causes  for  rejection  were  for  visual  defects.^-* 
Too  often  an  indiviihial  is  not  aware  of  visual  imperfec- 
tions and  as  often  a  cheap  optician  will  make  the  wrong 
diagnosis  and  supply  incorrect  lenses.  Almost  7")  per 
cent  of  29()()  persons  in  the  garment  trades  in  New  York 
City  in  1!)14  were  found  with  defective  vision.  Only  11.7 
per  cent  (jf  tliese  wore  glasses  and  only  one  half  of  these 
glasses  were  correct  .''•■' 

Value  of  Optical  and  Dental  Clinics.  —  The  story  of  a  clerk 
in  the  employ  of  the  Metropolitan  Life  Insurance  Company 
gives  interesting  evidence  of  the  value  of  an  optical  clinic 

working  in  conjunction  witli  a  dental  clinic.     Miss  S 

complained  of  a  blurring  of  vision  in  the  left  e_ye.  A  small 
patch  of  exudate  was  found  in  the  retina,  hut  the  oculist 
could  discover  no  cause.  Complete  rest  and  ah.sence  from 
work  seemed  the  f)nly  reiTiedy.  The  patient  was  referred 
to  tlie  d(-ntal  division  first.  Four  badly  decayed  and  in- 
fected teeth  were  (>xtracted,  and  immediately  the  original 
troul)le  with  the  eye  (lisai)peared. 

Clinics  in  Operation.  --  The  optical  clinic  is  not  frequent 
in  industrial  establishments  as  yet.  That  of  Cheney 
Brothers,  where  some  5000  persons  are  employed,  supplies 
40  to  50  paiis  of  glasses  in  one  month  and  secures  glasses 
from  good  optical  concei'us  by  contract,  at  ?2  to  $4  a  pair.^" 
The  Joseph  and  Fciss  Company  employs  a  nurse  who  makes 
a  suiH'ificial  eye  test  of  applicants.  .\n  oculist  employed 
for  two  mornings  a  week  completes  tlie  examination  of  those 
wit li  defective  vision  and  presci'ilx'S  glass(>s  if  necessary. 
'1  ]}!•■<('  ai'e  secure(|  by  the  company  from  a  first-<iass  o[)tician 
at  li.-ilf  price.''' 

Economic  Value.  —  4'lie  (i[)tical  clinic  of  flie  Metropolitan 
Lite  Insurance  ('onipa?iy  with  mie  oculi-t  in  attendance  is 
oi)eii    lor    examinations    every    afteinoon.     .\n    ojitician    is 


MEDICAL   CARE 


181 


present  for  three  afternoons  a  week  to  fit  ami  adjust  fi;]asses. 
During  1918,  974  t(>sts  for  glasses  were  made  and  glasses  and 
repairs  were  secured  at  wholesali^  prices  for  34GS  pei-sons.^^ 
The  money  collected  for  the  wholesale  supply  company  for 
glasses  and  repairs  in  1918  was  $0263.25.  The  cost  to  the 
firm  was  simply  the  salary  of  one  part-time  oculist,  the  half 
time  of  a  clerk,  and  the  original  cost  of  a  dark  room  for 
examining  purposes.  In  the.se  three  instances  the  diag- 
nosis is  made  at  the  cost  of  the  employer,  bui  the  employe 
pays  for  the  glasses. 


Hospital  and  Sanatoria  Cahe  for  Employes 

Varied  Provisions  for  Protracted  Disability.  —  Large 
corporations  occasionally  provide  hosi)ital  care  for  pro- 
tracted disability,  as  is  the  case  in  several  lai'ge  mining 
industries  and  steel  companies.  This  is  done  usually  where 
the  industry  is  in  an  isolated  district  or  where  other  hos- 
pital care  is  inadequate.  Railroad  companies  were  among 
the  first  to  erect  their  own  hospitals.  Workmen's  Com- 
pensation Laws  have  also  Iwl  to  arrangements  between  com- 
panies and  outside  hospitals  for  the  care  of  injured  employes 
at  the  expense  of  employers.  A  growing  appreciation  of 
the  seriousness  f)f  the  prol)lem  of  tuberculosis  has  developed 
"  Free  Bed  Funds  "  for  the  care  of  tuberculous  employes, 
supported  bj'  employers  and  employes  together.  In  a 
few  instances  corporations  support  tul)erculosis  sanatoria 
for  theii'  employes. 

Company  Hospitals.  —  Among  tlir(>e  hundred  and  seventy- 
five  establi.shments  investigated  in  1010-1917,  twenty-four 
maintained  their  own  hospitals.  One  company  with  several 
plants  maintains  four  hospitals  for  its  35,000  em[)loyes. 
A  corps  of  forty-thrcf^  physicians,  three  dentists,  one 
oculist,  and  twenty  nurses  treat  approxiniatelj'  GOO  iKwpital 
and    300,000    (iispen-;arv   cas(^s    every  year.     Expenses    are 


182 


Tin-:    HUMAN    FACTOR    IX    IXDUSTRY 


met   l)y  a  .S.T")  inoiitlily  deduction  from   the  wages  of  each 
employe,    in    retm'n    for   which    llie    employe    may    receive 
medical  or  surgical  trealnient,  though    he  must    pay  sepa- 
rately for  board  at  th(>  hospital.^-'     The  elaborately  eciuipped 
IVIinneciua   Hospital  of  the  Colorado    Fuel   and   Iron  Com- 
pany treated  82-14  cases  from  July  1,  1917,  to  .July  1,  1918." 
Tuberculosis  Sanatoria.  —  The  Metio[)olitan  Life  Insur- 
ance Company  Tul)erculosis  Sanatorium  at  Mt.  :\IcGregor, 
New  York,  opened  in   1913,  is  by  far  the  most  ambitious 
undertaking  of  its  kind.      It    is  on   021  acres  of  ground, 
1046  feet  above  sea  level,  in  the  foothills  of  the  Adiron- 
dacks.     In  the  midst  of  the  buildings  is  a  small  lake.     The 
plant  includes  a  Power  House,  six  Ward  Buildings,  Infir- 
mary, Refectory,  Administration  Building,  Ice  House,  Nurses' 
Home,  Superintendent's  House,  Rest   House,  Chapel,  Em- 
ployes' Doi-mit*)ry,   Watei-    Tower,    Pump   House,    Recrea- 
tion   Building,    and    ?    able.       Open-air    covered    passages 
connect   all  the  main  buildings.^'     Two  small  cottages  for 
married  couples  are  about   to  be  constructed.     The   total 
capacity  of  the  Sanatorium  is  322  patients,  including  beds 
in    the    Rest    House    for    non-tuberculous    employes    suf- 
fering from  anemia,  nervous  breakdown,  and  other  chronic 
troubles.     From   the  time  of  its  erection   until    1920,   1003 
patients    were    discharge<l,    inclu<ling   223    non-tuberculous 
employes.^-     In  the  Recreation   Buildings  tlune  are  special 
rooms   reserved   for    the    teaching   of   handicraft   work,    to 
occupy  th(-  patients  until  fitted  to  reenter  the  firm's  employ. 
Other  patients  do  gardening  on  the  hospital  farm   if  they 
are  strong  enough.     The  hospital  magazine,  Th<    Optiniist, 
ami  ofiice  work  furnish  paid  positions  to  other  patients. 

The  Crane  Company  likewise  has  a  sanatorium  and  farm 
for  the  rcaiperation  and  outdoor  treat n>ent  of  t!  -ir  em- 
ployes at  Buff.ilo  Rock,  near  Ottawa.''  In  1910,  ,32  large 
firms  in  Chicago  built  and  etiuipjjed  the  Valmora  Industrial 


«. 


\^ 


■v^ 

.%  V  ".V 


A  T 


o,  iur  liioir  tUuCiCuiai 


MKDIC 


ARE 


183 


employes,  with  a  capacity  for  only  30  patients.  Five  dollars 
is  tin-  ni('iiili(i'-liip  fee  for  citlici'  finn  oi- pcisoii  and  S20.IK) 
extra  is  cliarp;od  firms  for  eacli  person  in  their  employ  over 
tOO().^-  The  treatment  i  jsts  SIO.OO  a  week  and  is  p:ii(l  l)y 
either  employe  or  employer.  There  are  difRculties  with 
this  arran<!;ement,  however,  in  that  the  .sanatorium  is  so 
far  away  that  the  expense  of  tran.sportation  is  a  large  item, 
and  its  inaccessibility  makes  it  harder  to  persuade  an  em- 
ploye to  Mccept  provision  for  his  care.  The  Sears  Roel)Uck 
Company  >  method,  of  paying  the  expenses  of  tuberculous 
employes  in  nearby  outside  sanatoria,  would  seem  more 
practical. 

Tuberculosis  in  Industry 

Tuberculosis  in  Different  Occupations.  —  In  any  in- 
dustrial health  campaign  one  of  the  first  objectives  is  the 
detection  and  arrest  of  tuberculosis,  wliich  is  tlie  cause  of 
20.5  per  cent  of  all  deaths  at  all  ages  in  nineteen  different 
occupations  —  according  to  the  mortality  (experience  of  the 
Metropolitan  Life  Insurance  Company.  Forty  per  cent  of 
those  who  die  frcMU  tuberculosis  are  l)etween  the  ages  of 
2.")  and  34  and  their  average  age  at  death  is  37.1  years. 
Among  clerks,  bookkeepers,  an<l  office  assistants  occur  3o 
per  cent  of  all  th"  deaths  from  tuberculosis  and  one  half 
of  these  occur  in  the  above  age  group.  Th(>  proportionate 
mortality  from  this  disease  is  high  among  textile  workers, 
saleswomen,  garment  workers,  compositors  and  printers, 
plumbers,  gas  and  steam  fitters,  longshoremen  and  steve- 
dores, teamsters  and  drivers.  Tul)erculosis  is  least  common 
among  coal  miners  and  comjiaratively  rarely  affects  farmers 
and  farm  laborers." 

This  uneven  iistribution  of  tuberculosis  among  (Hfferent 
occupations  is  apparent  ev(ni  within  a  single  plant.  In  one 
shop  of  the  International  Harvester  Company  there  was 
only    one    case    among    7uU    men    in    two    years,    whereas 


184 


THE    HUMAN    FACTOR    IX    INDUSTRY 


anu)iis  100  office  cmployrs  the  tulxTculosis  mtc  was  high 
and  in  many  (Icpartmcnts  far  .'xcci.dcd  the  entire  plant 
average.--  In  any  clerical  f(n'ce  the  tuberculosis  rat-  is 
higher  than  in  a  shop  force,  not  only  Invause  the  physically 
vigorous  are  apt  to  avoid  ivdenlaiy  occupations  but  be- 
cause the  work  it.-elf  is  so  confining. 

The  Periodic  Examination  an  Important  Preventive.  — 
A  high  tulierculosis  rate  in  any  one  occuj)ation  may  be  due 
to  the  home  environment  of  the  class  of  lal)or  involved,  or 
to  inadequate  sanitation  and  overheated,  moist  or  dusty 
air  in  the  work  place,  or  to  the  nature  of  the  occupation. 
Methods  of  checking  the  spread  of  '.k-  disease  anil  restoring 
the  diseased  worker  to  an  efficient  state  of  health  must  vary 
accordingly,  but  no  (-(Tort  made  l)y  employers  to  assist  tuber- 
cular employes  is  of  permanent  value  unless  it  leads  to  the 
early  detection  <,f  new  cases.  The  most  potent  factor  in 
preventing  ,,nd  curing  tuberculosis  in  any  occupation  is  the 
periodic  physical  examination.  Tiie  value  of  catching  the 
disease  in  its  iiicipiciicy  is  obvious.  J,,  ;,  jrnmp  „f  patients 
of  the  Looi  Sanatorium,  I,<iomis.  New  York,  37  per  cent 
of  .M'vrnty-cight  incipient  case<  ,,l,i;iine,I  and  retained  satis- 
faci,,ry  health  and  woiking  efficiency. «  The  early  detection 
ol  tui>ercul.ir  conditions  is  made  possible  in  industry  only 
itythe  peiiodic  physical  examination  In  the  sanatoriuiii 
mainiained  liy  the  .Metropolitan  Life  In.Mirance  Company, 
6f')-f-  percent  of  the  .admissions  were  in  the  incipient  '^tige 
in  !',)17,  and  tiiere  is  a  steady  ye;irl\  mcrea-e  in  tlie  propor- 
<'""  "f  ineipient  cases  admitted.  This  fact  is  attributed 
to  the  ;innu;d  physical  examinat iou.^- 

A  Successful  Tuberculosis  Campaign.  .-Jome  efforts  to 
check  tul.eK  ii!(i-i-  in  indu-tiy  li.ue  prove.l  (lie  jxissibility 
of  succev<.      In    l!l(||    the   man.igement    of  ;i   Luge  lM)ot   and 

■'•' I'M'toiv  in  lliesni;il|  tnwii  of  Oxford,  M,i~>.,  discovered 

th.at  (ine  i>ii!  <.f  <\riv  .,ix  deaths  .•imnni-   llieir  employes  w.as 
caused  by  trberculusis.     The  conip;in\-  immediately  under- 


il 


MEDICAL  car:: 


185 


took  llic  cilucat ion,  ("xamiii:ition  and  treatment  of  their 
workers.  In  1(K)7  only  i'oiu-  peop'"  in  all  Oxfoid  died  fioin 
tubiTculosis,  whieli  indicatt's  the  success  of  the  eoiiipaiiy's 
caiiipaifin,'' 

Failure  of  Tuberculosis  Campaigns  Caused  by  Ei  - 
ployers.  —  Less  successful  efforts  were  made  shoit.y 
afterwards  liy  tirnis  in  Providence,  Rhode  Island,  and 
in  Woicester,  Mass.  Plants  in  Pioviilemc  po-ted  plac- 
aids  askiUfi  emi)loyes  with  suspicious  huijj;  sym[)tonis  to 
re|)ort  foi'  a  medical  examination  by  tiie  company's  phy- 
sician.^'' This  voluntaiy  reporting;;  sys'em  is  obviously 
unsatisfactory  unless  cuiativ'  assistance  is  widely  adver- 
tised. In  \Vorcest(M-,  by  an  ajireeinent  aiian^XMJ  by  Dr. 
Overlock  with  the  Dc^paitment  of  Health,  tiiiity-four  manu- 
facturers consented  to  i)ay  the  expenses  of  ticatment  for 
tub(Tcular  employ(>s.  Tht>  movement  w.i.-  given  gvvai 
publicity  throufihoiit  New  iMitiland,  ;ind  in  a  few  years  it 
supposedly  included  1200  meic.mtile  and  manufacturing 
estalilishments  emi)loying  2,000,000."' 

A  Natioii.al  A^soci.ation  was  aliout  to  be  formed,  when  an 
invest ijiat ion  dixlosed  the  fact  th.at  only  six  of  the  thirty- 
four  Woicester  linns  nomin.illy  taking  part  in  the  move- 
ment W(M-e  willing  to  jjost  notices  asking  emploves  to  be 
examined.  Seven  of  these  firms  did  not  even  want  it  known 
that  they  were  willing  to  i)ay  the  exjienses  of  treatment, 
emphaticallx-  st.iting  th.it  ihey  promised  nothing,  ;ind  would 
render  aid  only  in  indi\  idu.al  c:isc<.  The  l.ick  of  coopeia- 
tion  among  the  part  icijjating  emjiloyers  brought  about  the 
collapse  of  this  valuable  organized  effort  to  combat  tuber- 
culosis in  its  very  inf.incy." 

Free  Bed  Funds  Play  No  Part  in  Prevention.  -  Em- 
I'loyers  and  'inploves  of  jlaitford.  New  Haven,  and  Meri- 
deii  chose  a  difterenl  path  ami  joined  in  contributing  to 
Fre(>  hvi\  l'"unds  for  tuberculous  workers,  .\llhough  this 
iorm  oi  cooperati\c  effort    has  |)roved   highly  useful   in   the 


186 


THE    HUMAN'    FACTOR    IX    TXDUSTRY 


curative  pli;is(>  of  tli(>  wotk,  iio  systtMii  di  rciiuhir  oxainiiia- 
tioM  of  ;',11  (\iii)loy("s  luis  hccn  adopted,  and  conseciuctitly 
prcxctitioii  plays  little  or  no  pait  in  the  various  sclicinc-s. 
Much  nioi'c  poitincut  and  valualilc  has  liccii  tho  work  of  tlii.' 
f'hicajxo  Tulu'rculosis  Institute,  niculioncd  previously.  This 
included  the  tieiieral  physical  examination  for  all  employes 
and  made  the  cnti'ance  examination  common  in  Chicago 
industries."* 

Reemployment  of  Tuberculous.  —  Whether  or  not  the 
industry  assumes  responsibility  for  the  care  of  tut)erculous 
workers,  their  reemployment  and  after  care  are  •  .^scnt  ially  an 
industi'ial  problem.  Dr.  VogdcM' of  the  S|)rain  Ridge  Sana- 
torium for  working  people,  in  Vonkers,  h.is  pointed  out  the 
distinct  advantage  of  having  the  employe  return  to  his 
former  occupation,  provided  the  conditions  of  the  working 
place  are  favorable.  Light  outdooi'  work  is  h;ii(l  to  get, 
while  the  pay  is  also  light  and  risk  of  exposure  dangerous. 
Sixty  per  cent  of  the  Sprain  Kidge  disch.arged  patients  have 
I'eturiied  to  their  old  employments  iirstead  of  entering  new 
work,  and  the  results  have  been  most  satisfactory  because 
the  employe  can  cominaiid  a  highei'  wage  in  the  work  to 
which  he  is  accustomed,  which  means  bett(>r  food  and  better 
home  surroundings,  and  because  he  is  freed  from  th(>  worry 
of  learning  a  new  trade.  Moreover,  work  of  some  kind  is 
reconunended  to  every  disch.iiged  patient  as  essential  to 
the  maintenance  of  good  health.^'* 

Alter  Care.  With  the  employe  back  at  work  for  which 
he  is  ;~uile(|,  there  remains  the  necessity  of  careful  watching 
to  iMcvent  the  return  of  the  disease.  In  the  .Metropolitan 
Lile  In-m'anec  Company  .1  Home  (  (tfice  clerk  on  In-  retiuii 
from  the  sanatorium  reports  twiee  a  week  to  the  Dispensary 
to  be  weighed  and  twice  a  month  lor  ;i  thoroutrh  medical 
exainin.ation.  Milk  1-  -^.aved  twice  dady  to  .ana-mic  or  tuber- 
culous (anploye<,  in  the  \{v^{  i?ooni.  The  rc-ult  of  this  after 
cur(!  is  (hat  in  a   p( nod   wlun   nuit  ty-eight   employes  were 


MEDICAL   CARE 


187 


returned  to  active  duty  from  Mt.  MrCJregor,  only  six  wore 
sent  hark  because  of  a  relapse  to  their  former  tuberculous 
condition.'- 

MeDICAL   ><TA1'F 

Comparative  Costs  of  Regular  and  Part-Time  Staff.  — 

Of  the  17  m(>tal-\vorkini>:  esiiiblishmciits  with  medical 
departments  invcstiKattnl  by  .Mr.  Alexander,  20  employed 
regular,  full-time  physicians  and  surgeons  and  27  employed 
rejiular  physicians  for  only  part  time  or  subject  to  call. 
The  averaiie  cosl  of  medical  su|)ervisi()ii  in  the  latter  jfroups 
with  only  one  third  as  many  employes,  was  Sli.l  p(M- 
cent  higher  than  the  average  cost  in  all  47  establish- 
ments.^"  Evidently  the  cost  is  frreatly  decreased  wh(>re  the 
medical  staff  is  iti  constant  attendance,  ready  to  meet  every 
emeiffency.  lOvery  delay  in  medical  or  surgical  treatment 
means  an  added  expense  from  prolongeij  treatment  and 
from  enstiiim  at)senteeism.  For  this  reason  it  is  impera- 
tive that  ;i  plant  either  maintain  its  own  corps  of  physicians 
and  ruirses  or  join  with  neighboring  i)lants  in  meeting  the 
expense  of  such  a  corps. 

Joint  Medical  Department  Maintained  by  Small  Plants. 
—  This  is  done  in  Walpole,  Mass.,  where  four  sin;dl  j)lants 
join  in  hiring  a  nmse.'*  In  101.")  the  Commissioner  of 
Public  Health  of  Toledo  proiiosed  the  organization  of  a 
"  Htu'eau  of  Industrial  S.afety,  S.anitation  and  Hygi(>ne,  to 
b(^  Maintained  on  the  Mutual  Plan."  This  bureati  was 
"  designed  to  do  for  the  small  employer  what  the  large 
mamifacturer  is  able  to  do  for  himself,"  in  the  way  of  edu- 
cational work,  the  exch.uige  of  information,  the  making  of 
investigations  oi-  surveys  and  the  otTering  of  recommenda- 
tions. The  .activities  outlined  do  not  indicate  the  extent  of 
medical  or  surgical  treatment  contemplated.  The  pl.aii  is 
sugtfcstive,  howevet.  of  the  po^^sjbility  of  cooper.ative  ineili- 
cal  supervision  in  ^m.dl  plant-.  An  outline  of  the  organiza- 
tion of  this  bureau  is  charted  as  follows:  ■'" 


I 


188 


THE   HU.MAX   FACTOR   IX   INDUSTRY 


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MEDICAL   CARE  189 

The  annual  expense  of  maintaining  tliis  centralized  service 
was  estiniatcil  in  1915  to  lio  $12,000.  Tlio  Commerce  riub 
and  the  eniploj-ers  utilizing  the  bureau  were  to  share  in  the 
cost. 

Size  of  Staff.  -  Mr.  Trautschold  has  made  the  follow- 
ing ('stimalc  of  ttie  numhei-  of  physicians  and  nurses  in 
different-sized  plants,  based  on  the  data  collected  by  .Mr. 
Alexander :  -'^ 

^jess  than  .SDOO  workers  1  physician  1  mirsp 

3000  to  40(K)  "  1  "  2  nurses 

5000  to  (K^MJ  "  2  physicians  2      " 

7000  to  10,000        "  4  "  8      " 

More  than  20,000  "  (for  every  1000)  1  physician  2      " 

Some  companies  employ  a  proportionately  larger  medical 
statT  than  this,  the  Metropolitan  Life  Insurance  Company, 
for  instance,  having  foiu'  regular  physicians  and  fotu'  nurses 
for  the  sole  care  of  the  company's  clerical  personnel,  which 
mnnbers  between  foiu"  and  fiv(>  thousand. 

Allowing  Physicians  Time  for  Outside  Practice.  —  Dr. 
^lock  suggests  thiit.  every  plant  i)liysician  .should  have 
some  outside  practice,  study,  and  investigation,  to  heighten 
his  prestige  with  the  comnuniity  ami  the  etnployes  and  to 
broaden  and  stimulati>  him  in  his  work.''^  Perhaps  the 
Clevelaml  Foiuidry  Company's  plan  of  giving  their  full-time 
physician  three  months'  leave  each  year  for  hospital  practice 
is  a  more  practical  method  of  stimulating  the  physician 
and  lending  him  prestige,  i  lan  trying  the  more  expensive 
half-time  system.'"'  The  whole-time  industi'ial  doctor  is 
able  to  give  his  complcii  attention  to  (he  problems  of  in- 
dustrial medicine  and  to  the  organization  of  the  medical 
tiepariiiient.  In  the  study  of  present  mcMlicaJ  work  in  east- 
ern industries,  the  surv(\v  made  by  the  I'liited  States  Pub- 
lic Health  Service  in  lOIS  showed  that  the  departments 
eiii])loving  full-time  i)hysiciaiis  covered  a  umch  larger  held 
of  service  and  did  more  for  the  e.iii)loye.-3.^- 


190 


THE    HUMAX   FACTOR    IX    IXDUSTRY 


Plant  Nurse.  —Just  as  important  as  tho  plant  t  -ysician 
is  the  plant  nurse.  In  tlie  (wamination  of  women  employes 
a  nurse's  presence  is  necessary.  In  some  plants  she  as- 
sists in  the  preliminary  medical  examination.  Her  duty 
lies  chiefly  in  supervising  the  first-aid  and  hospital  work, 
inspecting  the  sanitary  conditions  of  the  jjlant,  noticing 
signs  of  fatigU(>  among  the  employes,  superintending  the 
rest  rooms,  giving  talks  on  health  and  hygiene,  and  visiting 
sick  or  convalesc(>nt  emjjloyes. 

Home  Nursing.  —  The  Home  Nursing  and  Visiting  Nurse 
Associations  which  e.xist  in  neai'ly  every  large  city  are  very 
satisfactory  agents  for  home  visiting.  In  Detroit,  the  Visit- 
ing Nurse  Association  takes  over  the  entire  nursing  responsi- 
l)ility  at  the  salary  of  one  nurse  or  gives  nursing  service 
at  the  rate  of  .S.3()  a  visit.  The  Home  Nursing  As.socia- 
tion  charges  .<?10.0()  or  .Slt.(K)  a  week  for  nursing  service 
(1917).  The  valu(>  of  the  service  is  str(>ssed  particularly  as 
an  economy  in  saving  the  strength  of  th(>  man  whose  wife 
is  ill.  In  I  survey  of  10,000  hom(>s  of  moderate  means 
the  Home  Nursing  Association  of  Detroit  found  that  out  of 
2000  maternity  cases  G75  were  cases  in  which  the  family 
wage  earner  was  employed  by  a  manufacturing  firm,  and  in 
653  cases  the  husband  acted  as  nurse  at  niglit,  while  in  l.")S 
cases  he  was  al)sent  from  work  from  one  to  four  days,  in  31 
ca.ses  for  a  week,  and  in  four  cases  for  two  weeks.'s  The 
function  of  u  visiting  nurse  as  ;i  time  saver  in  such  cases  is 
clear. 

Importance  of  Personality.  -  The  success  of  me.jic.il  work 
done  in  industry  is  largely  def)endent  on  the  personality  of 
the  diictors  and  nurses.  The  employe  nuist  have  confidenct' 
not  (inly  in  their  skill  i>ut  in  theii-  sincerity  atid  fiiendliness 
of  !)Uipose.  It  remaiii>  with  the  cdinpany  doctdr  to  show 
thai  he  is  irsiiiL!,  to  keep  .an  cmjiioyc  on  the  job  and  not  to 
act  as  .1  company  di'tective  seeking  the  discharge  of  the 
inellicieut  worker. 


MEDICAL   CARE 


191 


iMEDICAL    ReCOHUS 

Value  of  Health  Statistics  and  Records.  —  Tlie  ^-ecords 
of  the  medical  department,  if  propcM'ly  (levelope<l.  are  a 
valuable  source  of  iufoinialiou  in  rcfiaid  tu  conditions  in  tho 
I)lant  and  in  the  community  and  a  fiuid(>  \)()<\  to  needcnl  im- 
provements. Moi'e  than  one  fourth  of  the  population  of 
this  country  lielonj^s  to  the  industrial  group  and  therefore 
any  statistics  of  liealth  which  the  industry  can  secure  are  of 
value  in  i)ul)lic  health  work.  The  records  reconunended  for 
a  medical  department  hy  a  committee  of  the  National 
Safety  Council  include  :  ''•'' 

1.  Records  i)f  pliysical  examination. 

2.  Weekly  reports  of  itiorliidity. 
'3.  Weekly  reijorls  of  aliseiiteeism. 
4.  Report  of  labor  turnover. 

Physical  Examination  Records.  —  The  records  of  the 
physical  examination  should  include^  tlH>  data  relating  to 
the  industrial  liistoiy  and  social  history  as  well  as  to  the 
physical  condition  of  the  employe.  Sex,  age,  nativity, 
years  in  the  I'liited  States,  al)il,''y  to  s])eak  English,  mari- 
tal condition,  number  (jf  childrc!!,  previous  occupations, 
names  of  former  industries  and  departments  in  which 
examinee  was  employed  and  the  dination  of  employment 
in  each,  all  form  necessary  data.  This  will  usually  he  se- 
cured on  the  application  blank,  and  in  such  cases  can  be 
(luplicate<|  in  the  niedic.d  records  by  clerks.* 

Weekly  Morbidity  Reports.  The  reconunended  weekly 
reports  of  morliidity  would  show   (he  following  data: 

1.  Industry.  2.    Dcparlnicnl  of  inilustry. 

;{.  Occupation  of  the  sick.  4.    Xalurc  of  illnesses. 

r>.  Tot;d  tirn(>  lost . 

(■).  Axeraije  niuiiiicr  of  sick  ctiipIoMs  jn  each  deiiartincnt. 

♦  Fur  fdriiiM  (if  nii'diciil  and  dental  cxaniiii.ilinii  .iiid  ri'.nrds  in  iisp  in 
dilTiTitit   plants  ^ic:     I'uMic  Uoukb  Hulletiu  .No.  99  of  (he  Uuilod  .SUt«a 

Pn)ill<'    lli'iltli   S(..rv'w-..      MHO 


192  THE    HUM  AX    FACTO  l{    IX    IXDUSTRY 

Absenteeism  Records.  —  The  pcnonta^c  of  ahsontoo- 
ism  in  indiistiy  imlicatcs  tlic  pciccntajic  of  sickness.  Dui- 
inji  lh(^  war,  in  one  uiunilions  fai'tor.\-  in  F]n<i;lanil  (Miiployinji; 
950  men,  chafts  wnv  kept  of  the  amount  of  .-ickncss  and 
absontccisiii.  In  fifty  \vc(>ks'  time  (lie  absenteeism  eurve 
lose  twenty-four  difTerent  times.  Twelve  times  it  was  ae- 
coinpaniod  by  a  rise  in  tlie  sickness  cuive.  Nine  times  the 
sickness  curve  rose  immediately  afterwaids,  showinf^-  tliat 
the  previous  week's  absenteeism  presaged  illness  or  minor 
ailments  which  were  too  sliiiht  in  the  fiist  week  to  cause  the 
employe  to  go  to  the  doctor  or  sei'ure  a  medical  excuse.-'^ 
Absenteeism  records  are  therefore  of  significance  in  esti- 
mating health  conditions  in  the  iudu.stry.  These  records 
should  show  the  — 

1.  Net  loss  to  industry,  due  to  illii(>ss  as  a  whole. 

2.  Net  loss  due  to  preventable  illness. 
A  —  Fnjii)  industrial  conditions. 

B  —  From  coininiinity  conditions. 
A.    X'et  loss  to  industry  due  to  voluntary  absences  arising  from 
other  causes  than  illness. 

Cost  .\nd  Co.ntkol  of  .Medk  al  Cake 

Small  Per  Capita  Cost.  ~  "  A  sum  e(iuivalent  to  the 
wag(-s  of  the  average  worker  for  but  half  a  mirnite  each 
working  hour  of  the  year  would  be  sulhcient  to  cover  the 
total  average  medical  and  smgical  cost  (the  entire  cost  of 
health  supervision)  p(>r  year  i)er  employe  in  an  est.ablish- 
ment  suffering  from  .aggravated  iH  health  and  uruisually 
frequent  accidents,  while  ;he  wages  of  the  aver;ig(>  worker 
for  but  ten  sccoikIs  per  working  hour  a  year  would  more 
than  cover  tiie  usual  co<t  of  proper  health  sui)ervision." 
This  is  th(^  striking  cost  estimate,  including  the  salari(>s  of 
physicians,  mirses,  any  outsi(l(>  medical  or  smgical  s(>rvice, 
and  supplies,   which   Mr.   Traiitschold   deduced   from  data 

(>i>1b><>f >>/j    \\\r     Wi     A],, v., ..,!,.,.  LMi      'P!,..    f,.ir,. ..:,..„    ^    !  1 


MEDICAL   CARE 


193 


paring  the  data  obtained  fnun  iiiticty-nine  establishments 
with  lUtidical  supervision,  is  interesting : 

Statistics  of   Costs 


iNDrSTRT 


Metal  Trades 
Rolling;  Mills 

( Brass  1 
Light  and  I'owt 
Chemicals 
Transpurtation 
Food    .     .     . 
Riih})er 
Textiles    .     . 
Paint  .     .     . 
Leather    .     . 
Piihlishinp;    . 
Smelting  an<l 

Retininij;  . 
Coal  Mining 
Coal  and  Iron 

Mining 
Gold  Mining 
Miscellaneous 


oa 


za 


Total 
Average 
Number 
fiF  Em- 
ploy Ks 

SUPEK- 
VISED 


Total 
Cases  of 
All  Kinds 

TltKATF.I) 


47  t294X)4f)    1. 988.no  1 


t 

(i 


49 

24 
10, 

;',.■"). 
i;{, 

27, 

s. 

4, 

;}, 

3, 


,317 

,!t21 
.")72 

79.-, 

ti.:() 

4()2 
939 
023 
02(j 
358 


1 
1 

1 

1 
_3_ 
99 


1.270 
2.4.^)4 

1 1 .0(30 

2.r>m 

2,011 


3.>S..-,74 
49.04(i 
7.S,744 
N1,.V,>1 
09,. ■,().-, 

234,009 

07.3.S0  - 

10.2.-).^, 

9  440 

0.742 

2,S32 
2..S42 

I31.S9,S 
ti2,i20 
11,019 


1  » 

6.75 

7.28 

Total 
Medical 

AND 
SrRGICAL 

Cost 


1.97 
7.4.-, 
2.28 
5.10 
8. .-,2 
7. .'.3 
2..-,5 
3.12  I 
1.03  I 

t 
2.23  1 

i.io: 

12  (W 

24,SOi 

4.22 


3541,771  J  1.84 


ToT<L 

per  E.M- 
PLOTE 


/  ../■.. 


13 

92,(M)i: 
34,797| 
09.033| 
39,875i 
70.0891 
24.177: 
29.035; 
0. 102: 
3,473 

0.932 
4.037 


2.78 

3.72 

3.29* 

1.95 

2.92 


J.tU 

7.37 
2.02 
1.03 

5.40 
1.89 


130,000  11.82* 
35,.-)90'  14  24* 

_    _ 0,120     2.35 

495,544   3.165.114     6.39  $1,238,485  $2.50" 


I 


In  tliese  00  plants,  fnvoriii<>;  4!)."),.">4l  employes,  the 
average  aimual  cost  \n'V  case  thus  varied  from  S.27  to  .S2.89, 
giving  an  average  cost  prv  cjisi  tiratini  of  .S.30  and  an 
average  cost  pcf  cmiiloyc  .if  ^'2.'}{).  <  )mittiiig  the  four  plants 
in  which  t icatiiu'iit  was  ;ilso  cxtciidcd  to  the  families  of  em- 
|)loyes,  the  av('iag(>  cost  per  employe  was  S2.21. 

*  Inrhidi-   '>nc  (>st.Tlii;-hniont    ni    wlii.h   Iroatment  is  extended   to  the 
o 


mm 


m\ 


194  THE   HUMAN   FACTOR   IN    INDUSTRY 

Cost  of  Medical  Care  Usually  Met  by  Employer.  —  The 

cost  of  ine.licul  siip(>rvision  is  cominonly  inot  by  the  em- 
ployer ami  soinetinios  by  a  mutual  bonefit  society  ^up- 
ported  jointly  by  employers  and  employes.  In  1916,  out 
of  a  total  of  300  mutual  benefit  societies  investigated  by  the 
Department  of  Labor,  turnty-six,  whi.'h  were  managed 
and  supported  by  employes  alone,  and  forty,  which  were 
managed  and  supported  partially  or  entirely  by  the  com- 
pany employed  n^gular  f>ill-time  or  part-time  physicians. 
In  summarizing  the  investigation  Mr.  Sydenstricker  said :  ^^ 

Definin"  modi.'al  aii-i  hospitnl  service  in  terms  of  broadest 
latitude  the  statement  mav  he  veiitun'd  that  in  less  than  a  fourth 
of  the  e'stal.lishmcnt  funds  so  far  eonsidored  are  there  benefits  of 
this  kind,  and  that  the  trreat  majorit.v  .,f  funds  supplying  such  ser%- 
ice  are  amoni;  those  partly  or  wholly  supported  an<l  controlled 
by  the  employers. 

In  two  mutual  benelit  associations,  however,  the  dues  cover 
medical  service  for  the  families  of  employes.  In  one  of 
these  cases,  home  and  hospital  service,  medicines  and  am- 
bulance service  are  furnished.^' 

Cooperated  Support.  —  In  some  plants  the  company  and 
the  emploves  co(-)perate  in  meeting  the  expenses  of  medical 
care,  the  company  paying  for  the  equipment  and  the  em- 
ploye for  ruimhig  expenses.  In  twelve  companies  recently 
investigat(>d,  employes  pay  monthly  medic;d  fees  ranging 
from  S.aO  to  Sl.oO  for  married  employes,  and  from  S.25  to 
Sl..-)0  for  single  employes.  In  a  few  cases  these  dues  cover 
the  cost  of  medical  and  smgical  attention  for  employes  and 
their  families.  The  hi>-v\\:\\  care  provided  is  usually  ex- 
clusive of  board  except  in  fre(>  wards.^-'  The  due<  are  paid 
in  the  form  of  deducti.ms  from  wages.  Fubli.'  opinion 
,|,„>s  not  favor  compulsory  deductions  from  wages  for  the 
support  of  a  medical  dei)artnunt  or  hospital  which  is  man- 
age<l  by  the  company  and  which  the  emi)loye  may  or  may 


it  nnro  tn  nnTro!llze. 


.  _ 1  _  _     r 


lU..*- 


w  i 


MEDICAL   CARE 


195 


Hi'- 

I 


m 


subscribed  by  membprs  of  a  (leinocratically  managed  mutual 
benefit  association,  appears  to  be  a  n.cthod  of  obtaining  eo- 
operative  support  without  arousing  tiie  employes'  hostility 
and  distrust. 

Cost  Met  by  Employes.  —  The  plant  personnel  is  such  a 
shifting  quantity  that  it  is  scarcely  to  be  expected  that  the 
employes  independently  could  maintain  an  adequate  sys- 
tem of  metlical  care.  Less  changeable  groups  of  workers, 
such  as  the  International  Ladies'  Garment  Workers  and  the 
Workmen's  Circle  (.\rbeiter  Ring)  have,  however,  success- 
fully organized  and  supported  hospital  and  clinical  treat- 
ment for  their  members.''" 

"Arbeiter  Ring"  Sanatorium.  —  The  Workmen's  Circle 
is  a  Jewish  organization  with  a  membership  of  48,000,  tlrawn 
from  CtOO  branches  throughout  the  country.  Its  puoose 
is  prunarily  to  provide  its  members  with  money  l)enefits 
for  burials  and  sickness.  In  February,  1010,  with  only 
7000  members,  it  l)ought  an  old  farmhouse  in  Liberty,  New 
Yor)-  "  $6000  and  opened  a  tuberculosis  sanatorium  sup- 
ports )y  dollar  dues  from  each  menl)er.  The  rapidly 
growing  membciship  has  enableil  transformation  of  this 
old  farmhouse  into  an  administration  building,  the  erec- 
tion of  a  finely  e([uip|ied  hospital  with  all  luodern  improve- 
ments, a  steam  laui  ry,  and  four  Lean-to's.  The  two 
physicians  in  charg(>.  Dr.  Julius  TTalpern  of  New  York  and 
Dr.  Charles  Raycwsky,  are  strong  in  the  l)elief  that  the 
success  of  the  institution  is  larg(>ly  dependent  on  the  pa- 
tients' enjoj-ment  of  the  indejK'ndence  and  freedom  which 
accompany  a  sense  of  ownership. 

Joint  Board  of  Sanitary  Control.  —  The  most  complete 
example  of  unsul)sidized.  cooperative  medical  care  of  in- 
dustriid  workers  is  that  of  the  Cloak,  Suit,  Skirt  and  Dress 
and  Waist  Industries  of  New  York  City.  It  was  f;rganized 
under  the  direction  of  Dr.  Ceorge  M.   Price  of  the  Joint 


iil!i 


196 


THE    HUMAN-    FACTOR    IN    INDUSTRY 


and  on  which  arc  rcpresrntativos  of  llio  puhhc  the  workers' 
unions,  and  the  iniumfacturcis"  associations  in  those  ni- 
dustries.  With  tlic  conihiiied  financial  support  of  -nanu- 
facturcrs  and  workiMs  the  Board  supervises  the  fire  pro- 
tection, accident  prevention,  first-aid  work,  sanitation,  and 
general  health  education  in  some  3500  shops,  owiunl  by  3000 
manufacturers,  employing  about  80,000  workers.  But  all 
the  individual  and  medical  care  is  supported  and  controlled 
by  the  employes  and  unions  alone. '" 

Scope  of  Work  Done.  —  The  scope  of  the  medical  work 
is  wide.  It  includes  the  examination  of  all  applicants  for 
membership  in  any  union  or  for  employment  in  any  shop 
(this  has  been  true  only  since  October  1,  1918,  when  the  en- 
tire International  Ladies'  Garment  Workers'  Union  with  a 
membership  of  about  12r),000  adopted  a  system  of  benefits 
for  tuberculous  members:  i^reviously  oidy  thr(>e  local 
unions  had  sick-benefit  funds  requiring  the  entrance  examina- 
tion of  new  members),  the  examination  of  all  those  chum- 
ing  sick  benefits,  the  examination  and  n>examination  of  all 
shop  workers  in  need  of  medical  advice,  ^pecitd  heart  and 
hmg  examination,  a  therapeutic  clinic,  an  eye,  ear,  nose,  and 
throat  clinic,  and  a  dental  clinic. 

Cost  of  Medical  Clinic.  —  The  medical  clinic  is  largely 
supported  by  the  SI. 00  fee  which  is  charged  for  each  en- 
trance   examination    of    new     union     members.      :\Ioiithly 
contributions  from  local  unions  in  th(>  past  have  given  the 
other  necessary  financial    support.     The  total  cost  of   the 
work   done   in    1019   was  .?7006.87  for    12.493  p.atients  and 
14,331  treatments.     The  expense  therefore  av(M-aged  ^M  a 
patient  ami  $.49  a  treatment.      Current   individual  records 
number   approximately  28,000.     Five    physicians   ccjinprise 
the  medical  staff  and  are  emplov(>d  for  periods  of  two  hours 
each,  from   one  to  fiv(>  periods  a  week,  as  needed,  at  the 
rate  of  S4.00  to   So.OO  an   hour   to  each  physician.     The 
medical  stall'  is  therefore  elastic  and  can  be  made  to  corre- 


MEDICAL   CARE 


197 


If  ill  j 


spond  with  the  seasonal  fiuctuatioiis  in  the  numljer  seeking 
medical  care. 

Cost  of  Dental  Clinic.  —  In  the  dental  clinic,  S3. 00  is  the 
approxinu'^e  rate  with  extra  charges  of  §.7")  for  an  X-ray 
film,  SI. 00  up  for  extraction  witli  anaesthesia,  and  from 
•S25.00  to  .S35.00  and  up  for  rubber  plates,  gold  lingual  bars, 
or  gold  plates.  One  full-time  dentist  is  employed  at  a  salary 
of  SGOO.OO  a  month,  and  several  part-time  dentists  at  a  fee 
of  S2.00  an  h(jur  for  every  hovu'  engaged.  The  original 
equipment  cost  S354.").  In  1919,  8379  patients  received 
treatment  and  the  clinic  totaled  an  income  of  .S12,.')42.68. 

Cost  of  Eye,  Ear,  Nose,  and  Throat  Clinic. — The  eye, 
ear,  nose,  and  throat  clinic  charges  .SI. 00  per  patient  and 
employs  two  specialists  by  periods  of  from  one  to  two  hours, 
at  the  rale  of  810.00  a  period.  So  far,  an  average  of  five  or 
ten  patients  are  treated  every  ju'riod. 

Doctors  Paid  on  Time  Basis.  —  Tluis  no  physician  has  a 
financial  interest  in  any  of  the  clinics,  all  of  them  being  paid 
on  a  time  basis,  and  the  dental,  and  eye,  ear,  nose,  and 
throat  clinics  are  entirely  self-sui:)porting.  In  only  one, 
but  in  p'jrtant,  respect  are  the  clinics  dependent  on  the 
Joint  Boin-d  of  Sanitary  Control,  and  that  is  for  the  direc- 
tion of  Dr.  Price,  whose  main  work  lies  with  the  Division 
of  Sanitation  but  who  gives  his  supervisioJi  gratis  to  the 
medical  department. 


Health  Education 

Health  Talks.  —  A  series  of  health  talks  delivered  to  the 
employes  of  the  National  Lamp  Works  of  the  (ieneral  Electric 
did  more  to  adverti.se  the  medical  ilei)artment  than  anything 
else.  A  course  of  thirteen  talks  is  delivered  during  tiie 
year  to  classe.  of  not  more  than  thirty  employes,  meeting 
twice  a  week.  One  or  two  employes  are  chosen  from  each 
deparimeni  in  order  not  to  interru[)i  tiie  worii  of  iiie  plant, 


198  THE    HUMAN    FAC-TOK    IN    INDUSTRY 

,,„1    t:.  nunutos  of  n..n,,any   tinu.   ,-lus   15  .ninutos  of  tho 
,,„,,,.   ,,.„.,  „,,^ivrn   to, !u>..luHlll)t:. Iks.      D.Mpums  .uul 
lu.altli  .hart>  an-  fnvly  u.ol,  and  ..ml  n,o1  ...n  pictu,v>  aro 
to  iK"  usc.l  for  illustration  purposes.     'YUr  >.-al.a  qu.sfo.i 
hoxis   very   popular,  a,ul,lu.!u.al,h   talks   th..ns.lv..s  a,v 
,.v,M,  attcnar.1  l.v  tlu-  wiv<-  nf  >nuu-  ol  the  .Muployos  a„,l  hy 
t,,,   ,n:u.a,ers   tlu.n.-lves.      Hy    nu.an^  -.l'   -'•l'-;'*';-'-^^ 
,!h.    ,va<..ns   for   the   rstaLl.^lnueu,    nl    the   n.'d.eal    ae|,ait- 
„,„„  ,„1  for  any  eompulM.ry  he:,],!,  features,  M.eh  as  exam- 
ination^, e,n  be  fully  exiilained    aiul    frietiun    .lue   to   nus- 
un.lerslandinu;  avoided.  . 

A  li.t  of  the  Lectures  on  Hygiene  for  one  series  reads  in 

part  :is  follows:  " 

1.  Fn„.l  -Vari.t...  tissu.-l.miain^.  In-a,.  en.T.ry.  fruit,  ov.-r- 
I'atiair,  iiuto-inlnxiral  hni. 

..  Mr-mdWaUr  \Vh>  i<  watcT  m....<s.ry  ?  .X.nount  ,»  r  s.rsnn 
p.;;,:';:,,! ...;    n,-,...Ta.es,U.a,eoiT..,,nUk;    .au.-)..,.. 

''"■'TMPriH.  M...V  ,l,an  inal.i,,-  nni-Vs  l.ani  ;  in  nlation  to 
,■,,;;,,.  :an.la,-,...U,U; .-upan.-n  ;  ,i„n,„  l..u,  ■  -  iV..-,  ot  ..x-.s- 
,„ai„!     r'au..   .r    ^a^„us    -UO,0.,nal    .1..  a.  s    rh..u>na„sn,, 

n.iiMlliii-.  aI'M'is-  111'  jaw. 

,,  ,„„„,,Hin,;    iH.aM.n-.  for  uv.mHnK,  .>.H r  d-  p.,,,-,  .a.'ht  a.r  , 

tivaliiHiit  :   ad.  iic.ids  iiiid  tonsils. 

,     nv«i.m.    of    d.e    Hon...-     Tul,.,-..nl.,-is    an.l    .Dur    -  lanu.c 
disease.:     Cl.il.inn  :    i.hty  ;    teell. ;   .iMhea';   l.m.l,  H... 

Further  talks  are  ^iv.a,  un  Medieal  and  Sur-i.'al  lan-r- 
H..„,.i.-s,  C.ni,..,.  Ale..h..l  and  'I'ohae...,  Ven.aval  Diseases, 
•  ,.id  Indti-frnl  Ihuwne. 

Health  Bulletins  and  Pamphlets.        Uulktu.-    and    pane 
phlrt-  .,n   lu  alth  nieaMir.s  ;nv  Ir.-.iueiitly  distributed  by  ui- 


MEDICAL   CARE 


199 


diistr'i.il  oonrcrns  amoiifi  tlicir  employes.  The  Tvistnian 
Kodak  ('oiii{)any,  the  Colorado  I'uel  and  Iron  Conii)any, 
tlie  Brooklyn  Rapid  Transit  Company,  th(>  Dennison  Manu- 
facturing Company  and  the  Norton  Comijany  are  among 
those  who  chose  this  as  one  method  ol'  bcalth  education,  where 
necessary  printing:  these  pamphlets  in  dit't'eiciit  languages 
and  illustrating  them  fully.  The  l{cmy  lllectric  Comi)any 
of  Indiana  is  inaugurating  an  educational  campaign,  issuing 
a  series  of  pamphlets  Itv  tiicir  employes  on  tulxn'culosis, 
gonorrliea,  syphilis.  rh<'umalism,  ai)i)i'iidi(it  i<,  pneumonia, 
constipation,  inl'irtcd  ton-iN,  neiilcctcd  tci'ili,  eyestrain, 
l)l()()d-po!^oning.  pcrsi>nal  unrleaiiliness,  oadly  ventilate(l 
sleei)ing  idoms,  tol)acco  heart,  all  work  and  no  play,  and 
similar  suhjects.   ' 

Educating  the  Foreigner.  -  The  Color.ido  I'ucl  and  Initi 
Company  faces  n  diflicnlt  iiiulilcm  in  health  education 
on  account  of  the  forty-two  languages  spuken  liy  their  em- 
ployes. Health  t)ulletiu-  jainted  in  the  diffi  I'ent  Languages, 
general  and  person.d  hygiene  in-t  met  ion<,  health  lectures, 
"movie"  show-,  and  the  visiting  iiurx'  all  contriiiute  to 
this  company'-  elfoits  tn  -(  enre  the  intelligent  coopera- 
tion of  the  wc^rkers  in  ijrevenling  sickncs.-5.^^ 


CHAPTER   VTIl 

AIETIIOD  OF    MKMUXKHATION 

Importance   of  Wages.       Tc   llu-   avor.-e   otnployc   the 
moncv  wa-.'s  \w  nHvivos  arc  as  important   as  thr  number 
of  hoius  hr  w..rks,  the  coiiditious  uiulcr  whicli  lie  works,  or 
evc-n   the   kind   of  work   he  iUn><,  hccaus(<  wafics  (Ictcrniine 
the   ("onifort    of    his    li'i^un-    lioin.>.      Altliou-h    wajirs    may 
avorap"  onlv  one  third  of  ihe  lu   niifarturinii  cxpcnM's.  they 
rnuaiiioncof  thciinpurtaiit  ,■,.      items  for  all  employers.    To 
(he  pmeral  iHil)li<'  wa-e^  ;ire  of  moment,  l.eeause  upon  the 
rmi)loyer/    and    employs'    mutual    s;;ti<fa.  t  ion    with    them 
depend-  the  eontinuily  >>i  i)rodu(tinn  and  indu-trial  peace. 
Wage    Definition.        Waucs    are    the    c.mpensatioii    paid 
for  servie.'  ;it  a  rate  .and  at  inKavals  .aureed  ui)on  in  advance 
hetwecai     emi)lo\vr     and     (an|)loye.      Lal.or     ha-     gradually 
succeeded  ill  e-t al .lidiinii  the  .•<.ncei)t  of  the  minimum  wa^je 
;,s   uppoMMl    1(.   the   mMNimum    wat:e.     The   minimum    waite 
princi|)le  is  now   reeouni/.ed   in   law.      Law-  lixinmninimum 
wafics  for  women  and  minor-   in   indu-trv  lia\e  \n<n   incor- 
porated in  -tate  -lalute-.     The  War    l.ahor   T-oar.!   in  .luly, 
I'.US,  derl  iivd   the  "  li^lil    of  all   w.irk.a-  U,  :i   liviiiti  wa^ie, 
insurinn;   thr   Mil.-isteliee   of   each   worker  and    hi-   family    ill 
h(>alth    and    leasonal.le  comfort."     Thi-   i-rnaiple   mav   «aili 
general    leua!    recotinil  ion    in    t  h.     near    fatuiv,'      I.e-i-lalioii 
i„   lairnpe  ai'd   ill  l!ie  T  ml  ed  St  at  e-,  (i\iny:  the  intervals  at 
which  pavmriil    nm-l    !■.■  made,  wheilur  hv  ih.'  week.  f..rt- 
nii:lit.  n--  m.inth.  an.l  al-o  the  medium  of  pavmeni.  whether 
111"!,. ken.   -tore-ord(a',   .heck,   ^crip.   or   ca-h,    1-    similar    in 
purport    10   mminmm    wa-e   laws.     Tlu'   more   freciueiit    the 


METHOD    OF    HI:MUXK1{ATI0N 


201 


period  of  payment  and  tlic  iiioiv  easily  exrhanijeable  the 
medium  of  payment,  the  greater  will  l)c  the  value  of  the 
\vaij;(\ 

Scope  of  Wage  Problem.  -  I'.veu  whcic  wa^i^  lc>ji:islation 
is  most  (•(im])lete.  there  remain  v.iile  variatinns  in  'he  amount, 
medi'Mi.,  and  tiuuMif  payment  in  vojiue  fov  dilTerent  lines  of 
woi'k  in  tlH>  same  loca.iily  and  for  the  same  lines  of  work  in 
different  loealities.  It  i-  n^t  the  purp(ise  liei'e  to  discus?  the 
prolilem  of  the  just  division  of  profits  l)etween  capital, 
manafiem(Mit,an<l  workmen,  l)u;  rather  to  outline  some  of  the 
more  recent  attempts  to  sul)stitui  •  for  the  arl)itrary  rule  of 
custom  the  principles  of  efhciency  and  justice  in  grading  wage 
rales  according  to  occupation  and  skill. 

FixiNci  thp:  Basic  Wage 

Raising  the  Basic  Wage  Rate.  -  Since  tlie  mark(>t  value  of 
any  specilic  joh  depende(l  largely  on  three  factors  —  custom, 
supply  and  demand  — it  followed  that  if  the  l.ahor  sujiply  was 
large,  th(>  wage  was  low.  This  led  inevitably  to  a  condition 
in  which  wage  p.iymeiits  were  not  l)as(-d  on  co-t^  of  living, 
hut  on  tlie  at>ility  to  obtain  labor  at  the  cmplo.\-ei-s'  terms. 
Many  believeil  that  rather  than  face  the  dilemma  of  paying 
hi^ih  watic-^  and  losing  profits  it  wa^  simpler  to  jiay  low  wages 
and  sutler  labor  loss  fiom  high  turnover,  since  a  supitly  of 
new  m.aleiia!  wa<  con<tanl|y  avail.ible.  The  modern  tendency 
is  to  con<iiler  a  high  basic  wage  rate  as  a  me.ans  of  lowering 
proiluction  co-t^  to  the  extcait  th.at  it  en.able<  the  workman 
to  live  i)roi)erly,  an<l  lli:.t  it  in(a-ea-e<  the  worker'-  health, 
ellicienc\-  ;ind  intere-l  in  hi'~  work.  The  old  axiom  "  low 
w.ige-  for  low  co-t- "  ma.\'  eventually  be  riveiM-d  lo  reatl 
•'high  w;iue<  for  low  co^t-."  The  liisinrx'  of  ihr  .loscph 
;nid  lei--  (omitany  in  llie  live  years,  I'.Ml)  I'M."),  in  which 
production  wa-  incfea--ed  t'J  p^r  cent,  co-t-  dei  r.':ise(l  about 
lit  pel  lent,  while  lioutl.N   w    J,e-  wile  laixd   l."i  pii  cent  and 


'   il 


202  THP:    HUMAN'    FATTOR    IN    INDUSTRY 

\v(vkly  \v:mv^  :'.7  \n'V  cent,  is  i!liiiiuii;iliiiii.      It  is  such  results 
;is  these  whicii  aic  :it  tract  iiiii  widespi cad  attention  to-day.- 

Wages  Based  on  the  Cost  of  Living.       Diiiinii  the  war  a 
I'ew    coiiinaiiic-.    tried    scieiitilicanv    to    adjust    waiics    to    the 
lisiii^i  cost  ol'  Hvinii.     The  Hankers  'I'rust  ( 'o!iii)atiy  of  New 
\drk,  in  I'.HT,  appi'i'ited  a  coinniiltee  of  employes  to  investi- 
iiate   the    ri-e    in    llie   cn-t    of    Uviiiu:.      This   conmiitlee   con- 
cluded,  with    P.i;id,--trcet'-  jirice  lijiures  as  a   l.a-is,  tliat  tho 
cost    of   food   and   clothinsi   was   approxiinately   SO   per  cent 
hiiihi'r  in  I'.HT  than  in  nij.'i.     Sixty  iier  cent  of  an  employe's 
salary  wa>  as>nmed  to  be  the  j^ortii    i  allotted  to  food  :uul 
clothint:,atid  therefoic  each  em|)loye  rcoaved  an  SO  per  cent 
inia-eaM'  on  (10  per  cent  of  hi<  aiinu  il  -alary.      .\  >inular  l)lan 
was  ado|)ted  for  a  -hoii  period  1)\-  the  Union  and  New  Haven 
Trust  Companwu-iiiLi:  the  index  numlier  ifoi'  wholesale  prices 
of  foods)  of  th,   ""  ■"cs  Ann  tliM  as  ,a  liaM-.      It  was  assumed 
that  half  of  tin  .lMye"<  Imdiiet  was  for  food  and  that   the 

otlu'ihalf  nanamed  iiivai  iahl<',  so  that  with  an  advance  of 
I  jier  cent  in  the  index  nuiaher  one  half  per  cent  should  be 
added  to  sdaries.  This  adjustmeni  was  made  each  month. 
The  plan  was  ab  indoni'il  beca,i-e  other  bank-  in  the  vicinity 
failed  to  follow  -nil.  In  the  Oneida  Commumty  each  work- 
man receive-  two  eiivehipis  one  containinji  rciiular  waues 
.,,,,1  111,.  ,,th,.r  a  pcrciaitaiic  Ih.iius  calculatcil  from  Bra.l- 
-trcet'-  index.      Ivich  n'onth  h)r  each  20  pC)ints'  eh.aiitie  in  the 

iii,li.\  a    1   I'cr  ivnt   ;idv: e  or  decline    in    wam's    is    made, 

:il)pro\imatinti  about  tlO  pei-  cent  .if  the  .actual  imacase  m 
livinir  expiai-es.  The-e  examples  have  been  followed  l>y  tlie 
Kellcy-How  Thom-nn  Companv  of  Puluth,  Minn,,  Mie 
Cieoriie  \V:i-hinuton  CompMUv  and  tlu'  I'l  mt /.-ihed.aauan 
("ninpanv  nl  Cleveland,  the  indev  N'l-ible.  Inc.,  of  New 
Haven,  -Mine  Hour  milU  in  Seattle,  .and  the  \mer:can  .\s-ocia- 
tion  of   i,d>i.r   I.eiiislalion  of  New   ^o!■k,' 

High  Wages  Alone  Not  the  Solution.       <  I.miIv.  howver. 
|!,,,  !v..!vmeni  ,.f  -i  hiLiher  iia-ic  waue  rati'  doe>  not  in  ilsell  in- 


iMKTHOD   OF    IJKMLXERATIOX 


203 


croasp  ofTicic^iu'v  in  prodiictinn.  M;inap;rrs  of  war  industrios 
ill  the  pas!  \\\yvv  years  coniiilMiiicd  hittcilv  of  t!i(^  fad  tliat 
tlicy  liad  to  jiay  from  >:.").()()  to  ■'^Ill.fX)  (,r  more  ;i  day  in  ordor 
toscciirc  workmen,  while  the  vei'y  liii- !  ,;!ily  of  the  wafi'es  led 
to  :i  greatly  iiuTcascd  late  of  nliseiilcei-m,  l)e(';uise  many 
of  the  workers  chose  to  remain  idle  one  or  two  days  a  week 
(Ui  their  sui'phi-  iiic(ime<.  The  payment  of  hiiiher  wages 
nppreeialilv  lnwers  iiri)d,uct  inn  eo>ts  only  when  efiieieiiey 
is  made  possil)le  liy  enlisting  the  worker's  interest  in  the 
work  itself  or  in  the  success  of  the  hiisinoss. 


^ 


i  I 


TlMK    AM)    PlK(  KWORK    W.VOES 

Failure  of  Time  Wages  to  Secure  Eflaciency.  —  The  threo 

forces  which  impel  men  to  woi'k  are  Inve  of  th{>  work  itself, 
desire  foi'  future  reward,  and  feai'  of  the  c(inse(iuence<  of  idle- 
n(>ss.  The  first  two  ari'  cdu^tiuctix-e  reasons  that  stiouM  he 
fostered.  Tht>  driving  forci'  in  ^live  and  feudal  !al>or  was 
usually  fear,  and  this  force  has  remained  prominenl  even,  with 
thech.angeto  indentured  la!'nr  ,ind  then  tn  the  wag(>  system. 
In  machine  |)roduct  inn,  where  the  con-tant  r^  petitiou  of  the 
-;ime  mechanical  task  m.ake-  tiie  work  di^lastelul  ,and  when^ 
only  luinimuni  '.»ai:es  are  paid,  iear  of  dischari:!'  and  ensuing 
destitution  still  (ipei-.it<'  ,as  an  impiu'iaiit  (fTiirt-prdducing 
factor.  .\  '^low  rate  <if  jaoducl  inn  and  lime-killing  are  the 
freciueiit  consiMiueiices. 

"  Soldiering  "  with  Piecework  Wages.  To  i)rii\  ido 
stin\ulus  of  ,a  more  jxi'-ilixi'  chaiacter,  employer^,  from  time 
lo  time,  have  chaniied  their  meliin.U  of  wage  payment,  and 
instead  of  liuying  a  man'  time  h.iv''  bought  his  product, 
hoi)ing  to  increase  output    l>\   rewndmii  the  worker  for  each 

adiiition.il   umt   of   effort.     The  piecework  system   ll reli- 

c.illv  rew.iids  accordm-.i  t  >  output  and  automatically  elimi- 
nates tnue-killniLL.  (uriou-lx  eiioimh  It  has  ;it  times  ;ictu.ally 
resultitl  in  a  new  kind  of  time-killmg.      In  changing  from  time 


t 


204 


THE    IILMAX    FACTOR    IN    INDUSTRY 


wages  to  pioccnvork  pay  the  omployor,  in  order  to  make  it 
attractive  to  his  men,  must  offer  a  rat(>  of  pay  per  piece  which 
promises  a  rewaid  )j;reater  than  the  time  wage  ir  the  same 
working  period.     But  when  the  change  is  made  output  may 
leap  ahead  and  the  employer,  startled  by  the  wages  lie  i)ays 
some  of  his  men,   fretiuently  yields  to  tl>c  temptation  to 
cut  rates  in  the  liope  of   retaining  the  new-found  speed  of 
work  and  yet  returning  to  the  wage  level  (if  the  community. 
But  such  cuts  in  rates  mean  to  the  employe  nioic  work  for  less 
pay  and  so,  when  he  is  taught  that  cut  rates  are  the  sequence 
of  piecework,  he  learns  the  tiick  of  working  slowly  while  the 
piecework  rates  ai'e  l;eiug  set  and  contiimes  it  afterwards  to 
forestall  a  later  cut.     Puhlic  opinion  in  the  plant  does  not  tol- 
eratethefast  worker,  and  production  is  retarded.    In  Kngland 
the  "  ca'  canny"  i)olicy  of  the  tratle  unions  before  the  war 
strictly  limited  the  output  of  every  member,  and  makes  effi- 
cient production  impossible  now  under  the  i)iecew()rk  system. 
The  failure  of  piecework  and    lim(    wagi's  to   secure  the 
worker's  fidl  interest  in  output  has  led  to  newer  systems  of 
profit-sharing,  premium  rates  and  bonuses  fv)r  fast  work — 
all  variants  of  the  lime  and  piecework  methods  of  payment, 
and   combining  the   two.     None  of  them   /;<  r  sc  solves  the 
problem  of  efficiency ,  but  a  brief  review  of  the  various  methods 
which  have  been  used  is  enli|.'ht cuing. 


PuEMiT  M  OK  BoNt  s  Mr.Tiion  of  P.wment 

"  Soldiering"  Prevented  by  Premium  and  Bonus  Systems. 

—  The  piemium  ami  bonus  systems  of  Halsey,  Kow;m, 
Taylor,  (lanlt,  and  iOmerson  are  newei'  methods  liy  which 
extra  effort  or  superior  skill  i>  rewarded  in  industry.  They 
are  all  devices  to  overcome  the  "soldiering"  which  may 
accomiMuv  lln'  iniidductiou  of  piecework.  I  e.dcr  the 
premium  or  b.ni'i^  'inihoil  of  i),iyment    the   emi)loyer    can 

.__ ; .:....;.....       -.-..f..^        ::,.!       ^li!!        !;:mL!-       ■! 

I(ivjiIiiov.    j'»  t.ii.,,,.  1,1     ......      .*...i     .   ■....;      ;-:^,n.- 


ti  ,^  1 1.1  t'l 


METHOD   OF   IlEMUXERATION 


205 


difficult  for  tlio  employo  to  (Inul)lo  or  tiii)lo  his  wajios 
after  the  rates  are  set.  By  Ilalsey's  prcniiuni  system,  for 
instance,  the  payineir  of  an  hourly  latc  is  guaranteed, 
but  a  task  is  set,  and  if  this  is  excceih-d  the  worker  receives 
a  reward  whicli  is  the  equi\'al(>tit  of  one  thiid  oi'  one  half 
of  the  regular  day  rat(>.  Thus  any  exc(^ss  profits  are  dividiMJ 
hetwe(>n  employer  and  employe,  and  no  mailer  how  slow  a 
pace  the  workers  set  when  tlie  task  is  assigned  the  employer 
gels  the  major  ])ortion  of  the  sul)se(iuent  increased  output. 

The  Rowan  System.  --  Even  with  the  Ilal-ey  system, 
however,  it  is  po.ssihle  for  a  worker  to  increase  his  outptU 
ten-fold  and  thereliy  triple  his  wages,  so  Rowan  has  gone 
fiu'ther  and  made  it  imi)ossil)le  for  the  worker  to  doul)le 
his  pay,  however  high  his  spe(Ml.  By  the  IJowan  system, 
after  the  task  is  s(>t,  an  increase  in  output  is  rewarded  hy 
a  premiiun  added  to  the  day  rate  whieii  hears  to  the  day 
rate  the  sam(>  proportion  that  the  time  savi'il  hears  to  tlie 
time  allotted,  and  since  this  pro[)ortion  is  always  less  than 
one,  the  premium  can  never  ('(pial  the  day  rate.'  The 
apparent  unfairness  of  the  scheme  is  (■xcuse(l  on  the 
basis  that  a  man's  pay  is  higiier  under  the  Howan  system 
than  under  the  Halsey  system  until  he  trii)l(s  his  output. 

Objections  to  Premium  Systems.  —  The  manifest  objec- 
tions to  both  systems  are  that  tli(<  worker  receives  only  a 
fraction  of  the  value  of  the  product,  the  (luantity  of  which 
is  increased  by  his  exertions  alone.  Tlie  management,  on 
the  contrary,  not  only  saves  the  larger  poition  of  the-  extra 
wage  i)aymeiit,  b\it  in  addition  na^;  incicased  the  tola) 
otitput  without  a  corresponding  increase  in  overhead  charges. 
The  value  of  the  sy.-tems  li(-s  in  tluMr  introduction  of  the 
principle  that  a  basic  time  rate  should,  be  assured  ami  piece- 
work rates  be  p.aid  oni\  for  the  exira  pioduct  of  su|)eiior 
elhcieiicy-  Moreover,  their  int roihiction  is  comparatively 
simple.     Neither    is,  however,   in  wide    use    ui    the   Umted 

.><l'ili<  ;il    (lie  uresi  lit    lime. 


m 


M 


206 


TIIK    THMAX    FACTOR    IX    IXDUSTRY 


The    Differential    Rate    in    Scientific    Management.  — 

"  Scictitilic  iii;in;iu:i'iii(iit  "  lia-  intioiluccil  no  t'uiKluincntiilly 
(lilTcront  >y^t(!n  of  nMniiiicralimi.  Tlic  Taylor  (lifiViciif iai 
I  ate  by  wliii'h  Ihc  worker  receives  a  low  rate,  of  perhaps  25 
cont^  ail  hour,  until  he  reaches  !()()  ])er  cent  efhcieiicy,  and 
then  '■]')  cent-,  etc.,  is  anothei'  aiiil  siniplei-  iireiniuin  system 
which  in\dl\i-^  piniishiiient  foi'  inellicieiicy  as  well  us  re- 
ward foi'  efhcieiicy.  The  (laiitt  task  and  honus  system 
jiuai'antees  the  woi'ker  a  full  ilay  rat(>  and  a  certain  per  cent 
premium  for  aiiaininii  the  sliindai'd  task,  with  full  ;)ay  and 
bonus  in  propni'tion  to  any  time  saved  owv  and  aiiove  that 
task.  Kmcrson  I'elt  thai  the  reward  element  should  roach 
those  who  caimot  attaii  100  pei'  cent  cfUt.aeiicy  and  his 
graded  bonus  lietiins  witii  tho-e  who  I'cach  (Ki.ll  per  cent 
ofTiciency  and  after  100  per  cent  efiiciency  is  attained,  the 
boiius  remains  L'O  pei'  cent  on  the  time  worker,  plus  the  hourly 
rate  for  all  the  time  sav 'd.  Tliis  e\ti'a  p.ayment  is  more 
generous  than  under  anv  i  f  the  other  .systems.  .\s  I'lmcrson 
himself  has  said.  "  An  employer  can  well  afford  a  large  i)onus  ; 
he  can  well  allow  the  tot.al  wages  saved  as  bonus  to  the  man, 
and  iieiielit  himself  by  the  increased  efiiciency  of  the  pl.ant 
and  the  gicatly   reduced  overhead."  •' 

The  True  Value  of  Scientific  Management.  The  im- 
poi'lance  of  scientific  manaueinent  does  not  lie  in  any  new 
waii'e  scale,  but  in  the  effort  which  it  represents  /i  iniprorc 
hiiIIiikIs  of  icnii:  by  stand.-irdi/ing  tools  and  e([uii)ment  ; 
liy  routing  and  <chedulinti  th(^  woik  to  prtnaait  idle  men  or 
idle  machines;  by  eliminating  wa<te  motion  and  instructing 
the  workei'  in  cfHcient  methods;  iiy  seleclinu:  ^vorke|■s  suiti'd 
t'l  the  -pecitic  .ioli;  liy  the  I  forfanizat  ion  of  the  workshop, 
ca!<'ful  supervision  ;uid  functional  management;  and  lastly, 
by  the  method  of  time  >t  id\  uliirh  sei)arates  e.ich  proci>.s.s 
into  it-  motion  eicmcnis  mid  finds  llie  -t.indard  time  in 
which  ea(  h  molidii  "i  m'oup  of  motion-  should   be  comjileteil 

111   UHiei     i  I ,'    lii.iiiii.iiii    iiu     ^rC'iitc-il   ciiu  ii  ill  y. 


11       l.T      V.  1  IV        I  li  11V_ 


'.:  ':'.  'i  ' 


METHOD    OF    RF.MU.VKliATIOX 


M7 


study  which  sficul  ific  in;ui;mors  considiT  Ihi'ir  sporial  con- 
tribution to  tlic  scttliMiu'iit  of  tlir  wajic  [jroMcin.  \W  it 
they  claim  to  dctci'mino  scientifically  th(^  exact  amount  of 
work  wliii'h  an  avcraiic  man  can  do  in  a  ij;ivcn  time  with 
full  consideration  of  his  health  ami  continuinji  effect iviaiess. 
With  this  knowledi^e  the  iixinji  of  wa^e  rates  i)ec(inies  a  com- 
paratively simple  matter  and  not  ,t>;uess  work.  When  the 
claim,  however,  is  made  that  wa,H(>s  ai'e  "scientific,"  it  is 
an  overstatement.  It  really  deals  only  with  the  ditf(Tcntial 
wage.  The  UKjre  fundamental  consideration  —  the  basic 
wage  for  a  given  operation  at  a  given  time  —  is  not  affected 
l)y  studies  made.  But  the  setting  of  tasks  solely  on  the 
basis  >)f  previous  average-  has  been  dcMionsti'ated  to  be 
crude  and  the  scientific  management  movement  is  to  be 
cr(>diled  with  a  valuable  contribution  by  its  tight  against 
it. 

In  considering  the  value  of  sci(>ntific  management  and  the 
results  which  have  been  obtaineil  thi'ough  its  use.  it  should 
always  be  I'c-inembered  that  there  is  a  diiTerence  between 
so-called  machine  tasks  which  are  essentially  physical  and 
those  which  rcfiuire  efTorts  of  memory,  judgment,  etc.  A 
serious  weakness  of  scientific  managi'ment  lies  in  the  fact 
tliat  it  freciuontly  maki's  a  machine  out  of  tlie  workman. 
The  fundamental  principles  of  scientific  manag(!inont, 
such  as  motion  study,  apply  e>sentially  to  tasks  whicli  ap- 
proximate machine  tasks  and  in  which  iii  all  likelihood  the 
human  agent  has  been  or  will  b(>  replaced  by  a  machine. 
Tlie  more  j)rogressiv(>  of  the  I'xponents  of  th(>s(;  methods  are 
seriously  trying  to  solve  the  problem  that  specialization 
tends  to  loss  of  interest  and  initiative  and  also  trying  to 
adapt  thetn  to  other  than  mechanical  tasks.  The  dis- 
tinctly hopeful  element  is  that  the  more  scientific  mamige- 
meiit  analyzes,  st,ind;irdi/.es  and  reduces  the  motion  neces- 
sary to  any  given  task,   the  gicater  is  the  likelihood  that 


208 


THE    HUMAN    FACTOR   IN    INDUSTRY 


for  the  human  l)oint>;.  To  dato,  sciontific  inanagomont  has 
acconipHshcil  coiuparativcly  little  in  oiwrations  in  which 
machines  or  niacliinc-liko  movomcnts  are  not  important 
factors  and  in  wtiich,  as  stated  above,  intelligence,  judg- 
ment, education,  trainin-i,  and  kno\vle(lj;e  are  reijuired  and 
in  which  not  oidy  quantity  hut  quality  production  are  de- 
pendent on  acts  of  memory  and  initiativ(\  Any  scheme  of 
waiie  payment,  therefore,  must  take  into  consideration  these 
differences  in  native  ability  if  it  is  to  Ije  generally  apphcable. 


Salaried  and  Ofkick  Workers 

In  work  in  which  efficiency  is  not  easily  measured  by 
output,  remuneration  takes  the  form  of  a  salary,  paid  peri- 
(jdically  by  week,  month,  or  quarter,  anil  graded  accord- 
ing to  prevailing  rates,  to  the  {}ual;ty  of  service  rendered, 
and  to  the  lengtli  of  service.  To  stiuuilate  the  worker 
to  make  his  best  effort  employers  have  recourse  to  either 
periodic  or  irregular  increase's  in  salary.  The  difficulty  with 
the  [)eriodic  increase  from  the  productive  standjjoint  is  that 
it  appears  to  the  employe  as  part  of  the  routine  business 
and  not  a  reward  for  individual  efficiency.  When  a  clerk 
receives  a  raise  unexpectedly  the  encouragement  is  great. 
The  most  satisfactory  method  is  to  reward  individually  but 
systematically  by  following  up  the  records  of  all  clerks, 
and  c(>nsulting  the  office  manager  within  two  or  three 
months  after  each  change  of  position  or  raise,  upon  the 
advisability  of  a  further  increase  in  salary.  The  various 
means  of  rewai'ding  efhcieMicv  by  bonus(^s  and  promotions 
which  are  in  addition  to  regular  wages  and  serve  to  stiuui- 
late the  worker  to  fresli  intere-t  and  exertion,  are  as 
applicable  to  salaried  workers  as  to  pieceworkers.  It  is 
probable  that  an  increasing  number  of  positions  for  which 
salary  is  now  paid  will  become  sufficiently  standardized 
to  allow  i)aynu  nt  by  actual  outi.Mit. 


MKTHOD   OF    KK.MUNKRATION 


209 


Work  Stimuli  Other  than  Re(;i-lau  Wages 

Money  Reward  a   Substitute  for   Interest  in  Work.  — 

Many  employers  assuino  that  efficient  work  can  he  secured 
only  hy  sufficient  threats  oi'  reward.  Tliere  is  uo  doubt 
that  reward  is  a  more  effective  stiimdus  to  jrood  work  than 
fear  of  puni.shment,  Init  reward  is  also  a  less  efTective  stiimi- 
lus  than  interest.  One  scientific  manasier  says:  "We 
have  ])een  ahle  to  obtain  si)lendid  results  without  resorting 
to  a  system  of  immefliate  money  rewards,"  and  con'^i<lers 
it  wise  to  pay  a  liluTal  \vt\<io  so  that  the  workers  "  can  forf^et 
this  economic  i)ressure  and  do  fjood  work  because^  of  the  joy 
that  comes  from  the  consciousness  of  work  well  done."  " 
But  most  processes  in  machine  production  prei'lud(>  the 
worker's  joy  in  his  work,  ami  we  nmst  develop  other  means 
of  compensating  him  for  the  monotony  of  the  actual 
operation  in  which  he  is  eniiageil  and  of  obtaining  efficient 
production  through  incTcased  interest. 

Efficiency  Affected  by  Attendance,  Accidents,  and  Co- 
operation.—  Effective  production  depends  not  only  on  the 
quality  and  (luantity  of  product  which  an  employe  can  turn 
out  in  a  given  time  but  on  total  output  per  employe  during 
a  long  period.  This  continuous  output  is  affected  by  regu- 
larity of  attendance,  carefulness  in  avoiding  accidents,  and 
cooperation  between  the  management  and  employes. 

Futility  of  Fines.  —  In  the  past,  fines  ft)r  spoiled  work, 
bad  time-keeping  and  misconduct  have  been  customary  in 
industry  but  usually  ineffective.  C.(>neral  experienci>  iias 
shown  that  they  are  not  reformative  and  that  when  the  fiiu! 
is  paid  the  work(>r  is  able  to  dismiss  the  error  from  his  mind 
entin^ly.  The  Tadbury  Works  in  England  afiolished  tines 
in  1898  and  su})stituted,  ev(>n  against  the  wishes  of  the 
emploj-es,  a  system  of  individual  records  with  suspension 
or  dismissal  as  the  ultimate  result  of  a  bad  record.  From 
1899  to  IVUU,  with  an  increase  in  the  ioial  foiee  of  .">()  pur 
r 


••   Ji, 


in 


•J  10 


THK    HUMAN    FA('T(»K    IM    INOUSTIfV 


cent,  in  (ho  women's  dct;  rliuciits  the  pcicciilajrc  of  of- 
fciidt'is  i('c()i(l('(l  (Iccicascd  t'roiii  H.:}7  per  ccist  to  2.22  per 
cent,  \iliile  bad  conduct  luis  Ix-cn  practically  cliniinat'"!.'' 
The  expeiience  of  the  Metropolitan  Life  Insuram'(>  Company 
eorrohorates  the  iiselessness  of  fines  in  its  taidinc'ss  recoids 
for  the  thriv  ycvirs.  1911-  I'HG,  hichisive.  la  1011,  when  .i 
system  of  lateness  fines  was  in  operation,  tlie  av(M'ay;e  fanli- 
noss  per  clerk  per  month  was  .(')S2,  and  in  101(1,  when  these 
fines  had  heeii  abolished  and  a  banner  competition  substi- 
tuted, the  averau:e  tardiness  was  .472."^ 

Attendance  Bonus.  -  Th(>  Ireiid  to-day  is  away  from  pun- 
ishments and  towards  rewards  in  the  shape  of  bonuses  for 
good  attendance,  conduct,  and  ([iialify  of  work.  A  com- 
bined attendance  and  fiood  workmanship  bonus  is  paid  by 
the  Fayette  R.  Plumb  Company,  where  wvvy  workman 
with  a  perfect  weekly  time  card  receives  a  bonus  of  .")  per 
cent  of  his  weekly  pay.  Time  ]n<*.  when  sent  home  by  th(> 
foreman  or  due  to  an  accident  •liiiK  in  the  factory  is 

excused.     Anotlier  bomis  of  o  p   .    »  paid   for  main- 

taining a  good  standard  of  workmanshi.  1  this  is  with- 

drawn only  in  extreme  cases.  The  coni-ined  bonus  is 
c'dited  from  the  day  that  the  workman  starts  work,  but  is 
noi  paid  until  ho  has  l)een  with  tlie  '•'^'inpany  throe  mont'is, 
when  he  receives  the  accunuilated  amount.  If  an  employe 
loses  time  for  three  successive  wei'ks  without  excuse  he 
forfeits  his  rights  to  both  l)omises  —  imtil  he  shows  a  per- 
fect time-card  for  one  week.  If  tliis  deliiupHMicy  should 
continue^  for  long  his  dismissal  is  considered.'  It  has  licen 
found  advisable  in  many  instances  to  pay  all  forms  of 
bonuses  in  s('i)arate  (aivelopes  in  order  that  the  distinction 
between  -alary  and  special  bonus  may  not  come  to  be  con- 
sidered as  regular  wages. 

Accident  Bonus.  —  Money  rewards  liav(>  I)een  foimd 
valuable  in  keeping  down  accidents  in  the  two  plants  of  the 
Semet-Solvay  Compatiy   of   Alab.ama.     The   premium   sys- 


METHOD    OF    KKMIJNKUATION 


211 


torn  of  wngc  |);iyin('iit  iii(lu('('(l  the  iiicri  lo  iiici(';is<>  spocnl  with 
:i  cons('(|U('iit  increased  accident  late.  To  offset  the  (>ffect 
of  tliis,  a  lionus  of  10  i)er  cent  on  the  \vorl<(M-'s  watie-^  was 
ofTered  if  he  liad  no  time-losing-  accident  dniMiiii  tlie  month. 
In  six  months'  time  tlie  nnmher  of  lost  hours,  which  had  run 
from  one  Innidred  to  four  humlred  per  .nonlh,  was  reduced 
to  ninety  per  niontli  in  one  plant,  while  in  *he  other  no 
accidents  were  reporte(l  at  the  dressin<;  station  in  two 
months. "^ 

Service  Bonus.  —  The  John  15.  Steison  Company  finds 
that  a  bonus  for  yearly  service  is  an  important  factor  in 
stabilizing  their  force.  In  1S(»7  onl\-  'A'>  ])er  cent  of  the  liat 
si-iiers  worked  steadily.  A  bonus  of  .">  per  (.'ent  was  olTiMvd  if 
a  worker  nMiiained  in  the  com|)any's  employ  from '''hristmas 
to  Christmas  ;md  as  a  result  .")()  i)ei'  cent  of  llu>  men  worked 
for  the  entile  year.  This  bonus  was  progressively  raised 
from  5  per  cent  to  10,  b"),  and  finally  20  pi'r  cent  and  the 
numlier  of  steady  workers  increased  pi'oportionately  each 
time,  rising  from  oO  per  cent  to  07,  to  S8,  and,  since  1903, 
when  the  bonus  was  20  per  cent,  to  100  per  cent.  The 
bonus  periotl  ends  on  tlie  ;-51st  of  October,  but  the  boiuis  is 
not  paid  until  Christmas  and  if  the  employe  leaves  before 
that  time  \w  forfeits  it." 

Quality  of  Work  Bonus  or  Point  System.  -  The  managers 
of  the  Spanish  WWvv  Pulp  and  Paper  Mills  assert  that  a 
bonus  paid  on  increased  productivity  is  based  on  l)ad  |isy- 
chology  in  that  it  eniphasizes  th(>  unattractiveness  of  the 
work  itself  and  stinuilates  (|uantit:itive  rather  than  (luali- 
tative  production.  T(-n  y(\u's'  expeiienee  with  a  "  ({uality 
progress  record,"  by  which  each  workei-  is  rated  publicly 
anil  at  regular  intervals  by  the  <iuality  of  his  work,  has  re- 
sulted in  greatly  lowering  tlu-  co>t  of  production  for  this 
company. '- 

A  consiiicuous  exampl(>  of  the  bonus-for-qualiiy-of-work 
or   FoUll    Sysii.'m    is    iii;ti    oi    iiie  Vv  iii_\  ^-OvOiiai'ia  \^uliipu,iiy, 


212  TIIK    HI  MAX    FACTOli    IX    IXDISTKY 

where  e\-ei\  tliiiiu  except  uit|iiii  is  eoiisiiiei-c(l  ill  awarding 
ii(imi>es  1,1  (heir  lile  clerks,      I'oinl^  are  iriveii  as  follows: 

F(ir  pci-rc.-l  aiipcaraacc 10  points 

"         '•         altciKiancc 1" 

"         "         idinctiiality 10       " 

"         "        acciiriK  y  M 

"         "         proiniittii'ss  ill  liliiiLC 10       " 

"  "         prninpltu  ss  ill  lilUntr  rccjiii-^itions     ....  10      " 

A  ])oiiu-  ol'  SI. 00  is  paid  moiithly  I'ui'  (-very  -loinl  which  a 
recofd  averatics  ahove  00.  Tlie  cfTect  of  litis  hotms  was  to 
laisc  the  eilicieiicy  of  the  filitiii  clerks  from  0.")  per  cent  in 
January,  l',)17,  to  1)0  per  cc  !it  in  Decendiei',  1017.'' 

The  Stimulus,  jf  Hope  of  Promotion.  -  One  of  the  most 
stimulatitiii;  efrieleiicy  factors  is  tiie  worker's  liope  of  pro- 
motion !  1  more  difhcult  and  interest int;  work.  It  is  this 
phase  of  the  prolilem  of  wajic  payment  which  has  been 
emphasized  l.y  the  Westin'j:house  lllectric  and  Mamifactur- 
inii  ('ompan\-  of  Pitlslmrgh.  In  a  plant  emjilovinii:  20,000 
(ipei-ati\-es,  all  tlie  positions  were  (■Ias>i!ie(l  and  a  list  of  oviT 
■loo  di-l  inct  (icciu)''''  'MS  \\  as  reduced  to  one  ol  170  staixhinl 
occiip.ations,  \  it  ae  rates  paid  in  each  .nid  the  munher 
of  men  in  eacli,  taiuilated  i'or  every  depa'iment.  Tlie 
liositions  were  then  ^roupetl  in  Classes  .\,  H,  ('.  D,  and  K; 
Class  A  repicseiitiii'j;  the  highest  jirade  of  prodtiction  or 
tool  work,  etc.  ;  Cl.i'-s  B.  tlie  acian-ate  or  heavy  work  re- 
(liiiring  less  knowli  .Ij^e  or  skill,  etc.;  and  so  on  dnwn 
the  line,  with  Class  E  representing;  the  unskilleil  work, 
rc'iuiriim  little  or  n  ■  triiininji.  The  rates  of  pay  in  each 
clas.s  arc  arranged  to  allow  variations  for  length  of  service 
;uid  efliciencv.  When  ;in  emplnxc  re.ich(  s  the  maximum 
for  a  jiivcii  jiiade.  piomotion  to  an  occupation  ot  higher 
value  is  lacilit.ited.." 

S\-'^'lcmai  ic  proiiKilinns  of  this  sort  stinndate  ihe  vvorkers 
to  eilieieiit  service,  and  unifnrm  rates  of  pay  elimiiiati  mui'h 
discontent   and   friction.      A   money   reward   tlnis  comhincd 


METHOD    OF    REMUXKRATION' 


213 


with  a  iTaliz:tl)l(-  liopo  of  jiroiuntion  is  a  much  s^^iter  stiin- 
uhis  ti'  cnicii'iicy  than  the  moiicv  reward  alone.  It  is  note- 
worthy in  this  icspect  thai  x-ieiitiiie  niana,ii(Mneiit  greatly 
increases  (he  pi'oijort ion  of  e\ecp.li\'es  anil  foremen  in  the 
working;  force  and  tlierel)y  the  chance  for  i)i'oinotion. 

Executives'  Savings  Bonus.  —  Various  attetnjjts  liave 
licen  made  to  awai'd  a  honus  to  foremen  an  !  lieads  ot  de- 
partments for  inci'eased  efliciency  within  theii-  own  depart- 
ments. In  tii(>  executives'  proHt-shaiinii  sciiemc^s  the  di- 
vision in  ^avinjis  is  ordinarily  made  indi^irimiiciti'ly  to  all 
the  executives  and  not  according;  to  theii'  indi\idual  co'i- 
trihutions.  An  industrial  eufiineer  in  the  employ  of  the 
Hup])  Motor  Car  Corporation  outlines  a  hetter  system  of 
payini:  bonuses  for  inci(>ased  efficiency  to  foremen  in  an 
autonioliile  plant  that  is  capaiile  .^f  ready  a<la])tation  to  dif- 
ferent industries.  The  'lonus  i<  paid  monthl\-  on  a  hasis 
of  savings  in  departmental  expenses.  The  items  which  are 
included  in  the  running  ixpcn^es  of  the  department  and  are, 
th(>refore,  suiiject  to  the  foiit lol  of  tiie  foi'einen,  .are  :  wajjes 
and  salaries  to  employe^,  la.hoi-  turnovei\  o\ertime  work, 
and  departmental  supplies.  The  homis  is  p.aid  on  a  ratio 
of  thes"  expenses  to  the  total  ni't  sales  for  the  month.  By  an 
analysis  of  previous  expenses  th(>  100  pi'r  cent  efhciency 
mai'k  can  l)e  e-^t  im.ati  d.  The  I)onu>  hciiin^  at  an  iffieiency 
of  80  i»er  cent  and  e(iuals  20  per  cent  of  the  foreman's 
monthly  \\a^;e  at   100  per  cent  efhcieiicy.'  ■ 

Suggestion  Systems  and  Bonuses.  \  rommon  and 
populai'  fuiiii  of  lioiius  is  th.it  |iaid  for  su^ijrest  ions  from 
em])loyes.  I'.ncoui.aging  suj!;^esl  ions  as  to  pos-ilile  im- 
provements in  methods  of  work  are  one  way  of  enlist  ii.'  <• 
workei '•-  interest  in  his  j.  h.  and  .i  method  apprecia 
s...'h  jiLnts  a<  the  National  C,i>li  He^d-tcr  Conipanv,  tne 
Kastman  Kodak  (Umpany  and  the  ( 'ommonwealth  'vli- 
soii  Comi)any,  amonti  a  izreat  man\'  othrrs.  One  ot  the 
most   complete  systems  is  that  of  the   Kodak   I'ark  Works, 


214 


TIIK    mMAX    FACTCJK    IX    IXDUSTRY 


whoro  flhnut  'MM)  tiicii  and  lodO  women  arc  en i ployed.""' 
Blanks  and  iii:  il  lioxe>  are  plariNl  at  ronvenient  i)oints  alxint 
the  planl.  'I'lie  employe  fills  out  lii'^  'anlv  and  detaelK 
and  keeps  a  numhered  stnh  on  wliieli  !  eopies  his  su^itres- 
tion  for  future  reference.  If  a  diawinii  is  necessary  to  illus- 
trate this  idea  he  may  ha\"e  the  assistance  of  on(>  of  the 
company's  draftsmen.  The  slips  are  collected  at  inti'rvals 
durinu:  the  day  and  taken  to  \hv  manay:ei''s  oliice,  whci'c 
they  are  inuuediately  stamped  with  the  date  of  their  re- 
ceipt, so  that  there  may  he  no  difficulty  in  c^taMishin^;  tho 
priority  of  similar  suiz^cstion^.  Their  receipt  is  ackiiowl- 
(■dy:cd  l»>'  a  special  l>lank  sent  to  the  em])loye.  l']ach  su^- 
jicstioti  is  passed  upon  liy  thr  >upeiintendent  of  the  depart- 
ment concei'iied,  and  if  accc|ited  .and  indorsed  hy  iheman.ajier 
the  employe  i^  so  notihed.  .\t  the  end  of  e.icli  month  a 
conunittee  made  up  of  the  dej);irtment  superintendents 
awards  pri/.es.  In  ordei'  suliit'iently  to  advertise  the  sys- 
tem, a  de<(Mipti\'e  li-1  of  all  t!;,'  accepted  sujin<'^'i"'i^  '^ 
|)ul)lished  in  the  plant  nulhtin.  The  aw.iiiN  u^cd  to  he 
made  every  three  month'-,  hut  their  more  f!'e()uent  payment 
has  pi'oved  a  ^I'catcr  stinmlus. 

The  su}iti-e<t ions  ;ire  di\  ided  into  li\c  ;;;dui)s,  and  ;i  mini- 
numi  .award  for  e.ich  iri-oup  assi)i;nei|,  ,a-  t'ollows  :  (1)  iui- 
provements  in  product^,  isri.OO;  CJi  reductions  in  costs, 
Sl.tK);  {'.])  imi)rovement-  in  manufacturinii  nuthods,  $3.00; 
(4)  re<luction  in  .iccidenl  .and  lire  ha/,.irds,  S2. 00 ;(."))  conven- 
icncos,  SI.OO.  A-;  much  a^  .^1000  has  lieen  awarded  an  em- 
plo\c  fo!-  an  ("-peciidiy  iioiid  idea. 

The  foicinen  are  not  excluded  from  the  competition. 
Some  III  the  foremen  compete  in  the  i(;iula!  \\,i\.  ()lher 
non-p;ul  icipat  ini;  foremen's  prizes  aic  aN<)  awaided  to  men 
who  h.i\('  from  si\  to  I  went  \'-!i\c  em|)loyev  iniile?-  them, 
and  those  ha\  inu  more  than  twenly-five  midei'  tliem.  livery 
foui"  months  Iwii  pii/,e~.  the  tir--l  lieinu  i^'i.")  (10  and  the  seeoiid 
$10.(J(J,  are  awarded    to    the    foremen    iuiviiig    the   grcutcst 


^ 


MKTIIOD    dl'     UKMIXKUATION' 


215 


number  of  ailoplcil  suafj:(>sti(ti)s  coininsi;  t'lnin  the  iiuii  lui'lcr 
tliiMii,  and  the  same  prizes  are  awanlecl  to  llie  loreim'ii  rcoin 
whose  men  have  come  those  of  the  ^re;ite-t  vahie.  Tliis 
encnurafic";  cooperation  between  the  foremen  anil  tlie  men 
under'  lliem  ami  increases  tiie  value  of  the  sufrtiestions. 
The  avcraM;e  numher  of  adopted  suji^estions  in  this  plant 
amounts  to  about  10  oi'  4.")  pnv  cent  of  all  those  hande(l  in. 
In  i91()  this  numbiT  was  2;?()(). 

Suggestion  Blanks.  —  In  tlu  camcr.a  works  of  i\\v  Kast- 
nian  Kodak  Company  the  system  is  im|)rovi'd  upon  in  some 
details.  The  chairman  of  the  suggestions  connnittee  is 
head  of  Hv(>  special  committees  made  up  of  department 
heads,  each  of  whom  looks  .after  one  of  the  jiroups  fif  sug- 
gestions enumerated  al)()V(\  The  blaidv  is  provided  with 
a  stub  on  which  the  emi>love  writo  his  n.ime,  which  does  not 
appear  on  the  lil.-mlv  it-elf.  The  secietary  of  the  general 
committee  detaches  the  stub  with  the  name  of  thi'  emjiloyo 
before  submitting  the  sugge-^tion  to  the  right  coimniltee, 
and  in  this  way  all  danger  of  favoritism  in  adojiting  and 
awardi   ir  prizes  is  climinatiMl. 

Good  Conduct  Bonus.  .\  uni()ue  foiin  of  bomis  is  the 
"  profit-sharing  "  --cheme  of  the  I'onl  Motor  Company,  whicli 
is  .actuallv  a  bomis-for-good-conduct  .system.  I'lider  the 
original  rates  ;i  mininuun  wage  of  ;U  cents  an  hour  was  pai<l, 
;iiid  in  ••'ddi,  ,?i  a  minimum  o''  "JS',  ceir-  .an  hoiu'  is  given  as  a 
,sh;ii(>  of  "  [iKilit--  "  to  a  man  wiin  is, 

(I  I  iiiarricii  ;ni<l  liviiii:  witii  :iicl  liikinj.;     I  circ  nf  hi--  family, 

iir 

('2)  siiiLrli'  ;iti(l  (i\  I'l-  '2'2  \  r;irs  III'  ai,'4>  .itnl  of  prnv  in  I  liril'l  \   lialnl-i.  or 

(3)  iniiirr    -2    \i-AV<    hT    .-lirc    atlil    llir    --'ilr    --Ulipurt     nl'      'iinr    li|o(i(! 

n'1ati\«', 


P 


.md  to  all  women  \>.!;o  ai'c  th(>  ^ole  --niiport  *^f  >omf'  bluod 
relative  In  P.iUl.  00  jier  cent  of  iIm'  fmcc  were  receiving 
the   exfr.a    reinii-        tioii    df   2S',    (•('nt>   .m    houi'.      I5ut    this 


216 


THH    Ur.MAX    FACToU    l\    IXDCSTHY 


sohonio  i^j  of  dotiljtful  socinl  v;i'  ic.  It  ticccssilnlos  a  system 
of  inv  ^ation.  Whatever  t lie  results  clainic,  in  rogard  to 
condn  ,  it  may  lie  (luestioned  ^vhetlicr  it  would  not  have 
been  seriously  resented  by  the  employes  liad  the  remuneration 
not  been  far  in  exeess  of  any  eontemporary  wage  outside. ■' 


Pr{OHT-SHAKIN(i 

Early  Profit-sharir.g.  —  One  of  the  first  propos(>d  solu- 
tions of  the  wajre  pi-oblem  was  protit-shaiiiifz;.  As  early  as 
ISli  the  Im|)ri!uerie  Nationale  of  Paris  distribute(l  bonuses 
of  varyinu'  ix'rceiit aires  at  intervals  amonsz;  its  employes. 
In  ISl'J  the  Maison  beclaiie  ado|)trd  profit ---'larinj:,  and  in 
its  final  fortn  the  system  divided  all  profits  o\er  and  above 
a  ")  per  cen'  intcn'est  on  eapital  and  the  small  sahirics  paid 
to  tlie  two  m:uia<:itm  partners,  into  fotu"  parts,  one  for  the 
manajrinj:  p;irtuer'<  th"nis(  Ives,  dtie  foi'  tlic  Mutual  Aid 
Society,  and  two  foi'  the  employes  as  div'idriids  on  wajies.'"' 
This  pl;iii  is  still  suci('s-;fully  in  oiieration  in  the  same  firm, 
which  has  now  the  name  of  Hedouly  et  ('i(\  In  the  eiiihties 
the  profit --^h.'inim  nio\-cmcnt  licinme  very  i;enerai  iti  Fi'ance, 
(iermany.  laiiiiaiid.  .'ind  the  I'nited  St;ite<.  In  ISS!)  Ihiity- 
four  establishments  in  this  country  had  ailopted  sonie  form 
of  profit-^harin^;."  Its  advocates  claimed  tint  by  sh.arin^ 
piofits  \\\i-  cmployt-  n  ilized  t  hey  were  wmkinii  for  them- 
selves ami  weie  theietore  vitally  interested  in  the  industry's 
efhrirncy. 

Its  Defects.  —  Th(>  chief  difhi  ulty  with  the  pioneer  jjrofit- 
sharilig  scheme  lay,  however,  in  the  f:ict  th;'t  the  ix-rcentanc 
of  profits  shaii'd  with  the  employes,  e\('n  if  stated  in  ad\  ,iiice, 
could  not  usually  lie  ^iuarantee(|,  wliiie  its  p;iytTient  w.as  too 
long  deterred  to  serv(>  as  an  active  stim.du-  fmm  il.iy  to 
day.  Moreover,  the  employes  uained  or  lost  with  tlie 
fluetuiitmi;  e|Iirieii(\'  of  the  man.'itren.'d  st.it'f,  (i\-er  which  they 
had  no  control,      .\uutv-tour  per  cent  of  ;dl  business  enter- 


METHOD    OF    REMUNERATION 


217 


prises  fail,  and  this  fart  '•(■iidors  pi-ofit-sliiriiiy;  of  duliious 
value  t(i  the  rank  and  file  oi  employes,  even  if,  as  is  usually 
the  case,  employes  arc  not  subject  to  loss-sharing,  asiwell  as 
proht-sharinji. 

Gain  Sharing.  —  The  "  gain  sharing  "  proposed  hy  .Mr. 
Hem-y  H.  Towiie  in  ISSO,  at  a  meeting  of  the  American  So- 
ciety of  Mechanical  Engineers,  at'.empted  to  remedy  thise 
defects  by  se{)arating  the  costs  over  which  the  employes 
had  some  control  from  the  other  costs  of  the  plant.  The 
savings  in  thes(>  costs  within  a  give,  period  were  diviiled 
among  them.-'  But  heyond  the  brief  period  of  a  few  months 
or  years  agre(nl  upon,  the  employe  hnd  no  assurance  of  the 
permanence  of  the  scheme,  and  the  same  imdesirable  ele- 
UK-nt  of  deferment  in  reward  remained  an  obstacle  to  its 
success. 

Possible  Application  of  Profit-sharing.  —  lM)r  many 
years  profit-sh.aring  steadilx  lost  popularity  and  was  super- 
seded l)y  newer  and  nioi-e  tangil)U'  methods  of  rewarding 
efficiency.  Within  the  last  few  years,  howev(>r.  the  move- 
ment has  claimed  new  adhcients.  and  in  icsponse  to  the 
revived  inteicst  in  the  sul)ject  five  imimincnt  busmess 
and  professional  men'"— the  Messrs.  i^urritt,  Dennison, 
Ciay,  lleilm.an,  and  Kendall  -  h.ive  pui)lished  jointly  a 
valuable  apprairal  of  "  rrotit-sharing." 

In  the  first  i)lace,  the  authors  disclaim  profit-sharing  as  a 
{>anacea  foi'  l.ilxir  t!-ou!)l'.'s  or  a  substitute  for  good  matiage- 
nient.  Protit-sh:uing  is  only  of  value  when  it  is  acceptable 
jind  attractive  to  the  employes,  which  means  that  it  can- 
not l)e  a  substitute  for  a  fair  regul.ir  wa;ie,  nor  should  it 
inf(Tf(M'e  with  the  coll(<ctive  bargain  and  strike,  or  wiih  the 
employe's  abilit.\'  to  chaimc  (-mi)loyiuent  witliout  iinancial 
loss.  iMU'ther.  its  erfccMvcness  varies  inversely  with  the 
size  ot  tin'  group  to  which  it  appiie-~  .md  directly  with  th( 
rank  of  the  workers,  and  is  u-elul  only  when  individual 
output   cannot   be   measured.      lii   largi-   mdustnes,   whero 


i 


t   I 


^yygi  j 


i| 


218 


THE    HUMAN    FACTOR    IX    INDUSTRY 


work  i>  >pecializi'(|  and  casiiy  standaidizcd,  other  molliods 
(if  ii'wardiim-  supci'ior  cfliciciicy  arc  c-asy  to  apply  and  more 
fruitful  in  results.  l'"or  that  reason  !irofit->!iaiim;-  is  at  best 
only  nuvint  for  a  small  proportion  of  all  inditsti'ial  workei's. 
When  individual  efficiency  is  (lifii(ailt  P.  rate,  as  with  a  man- 
Ufiin^-  force,  in  ^anij;  work,  or  in  certain  industries,  sucli  as 
the  jius  industry,  where  the  volume  of  gas  produced  alone 
registei's  the  aj;f>;re^a1e  efficiency  of  all  the  various  w<)rk(>rs, 
profit-sharinii;  can  he  a  stimulatiim-  nuii  clTective  way  of 
ohtaininji  the  woikers'  coopeiation.  This  is  also  tiiie  where 
close  supervision  of  the  woiker  is  impossihle,  as  with  travel- 
infi  salesmen  and,  in  some  cases,  with  delivery  men.  IJut 
tlH>  firoup  to  which  it  .applies  nurst  l,c  small  enoiijvh  for 
each  inemher  to  ivali/ce  the  importance  of  his  own  etTorts 
in  antinx'titini!;  profits. 

Combined  Profit-sharing  and  Savings  Scheme.  —  A 
voluntary  coml)ine(l  profit-shaiiiiK  and  s.avinjis  scheme  intro- 
duced liy  .Sears  I^oehuck  and  Company  in  litKl  received 
indorsement  hy  the  Typo<iraphical  Union  men  and  the 
pressmen  of  the  company  in  1'.)1S,-''  and  has  .attr.icted 
'vide  attention.  This  •'  Uniployes'  Savings  and  Profit- 
sharing  Pension  Fund  "  is  opin  to  every  emi)loye  after 
three  .years  of  service,  and  in  the  first  cight(-(>n  months  .after 
its  introduction  enlisted  01  per  cent  of  the  eligihle  (>mployes. 
During  th.at  time,  on  ;i  h.isi-^  of  .">  pci-  rv\\\  of  -IrMr  sal.iries, 
no  one  heing  allowed  to  deposit  more  than  SI")!)  per  annum, 
the  deposits  ('([U.aled  .SC^n, .')()().  In  the  s.ime  period  the 
company  contrihuted  .SI,;{IS,712.!»7.  it^  sh.aiv  being  based 
on  .")  per  cent  o,'  its  profits.  The  fund  is  invested  in  com- 
pany stock  and  shares  aiv  pi  iicd  to  the  credit  of  particip.at- 
iilg  employes  in  proportion  Pi  the  amounts  deposite.i  by 
each  during  the  year.  Membership  in  the  ImukI  is  volun- 
tary, .and  .at  any  time  the  employe  m.iy  withdr.aw  his  total 
cash  deposits  with  :>  per  ceiii  interest  conipomuh-d  ^enu'- 
annually,  while  after  ten  years  of  service  he  may  with.lr.aw 


Mi/rnOD    f)F    HKMU\i;i{ATFON 


219 


all  mnnoy  and  scH-mitics  crcilitcd  to  his  ;irc()uiit.  iiic!ii<ling 
the  company's  coiilrihiitions.  Th(>  sauic  i)rivil(><.,.  is  granted 
to  women,  after  five  years  of  service,  wlio  nvo  Ic  ivinfj;  to  ho 
married. 

Shares  for  Group  Work.  —  An   interestinjr  variation  of 
profit-sharing  ajjplied  to  small  ,uroui)s  of  operatives    is   in 
force  in  Mu;  Catlhury  Works  in  England  for  groups  or  j^ang 
work   where    piecework    rates   cannot    he   applied.      Shares 
in  the  total  earninf^.s  of  each  group  are  allotted  to  the  indi- 
vidual  jrirls   acc(jrdii.<r   {o   age   and   I'xperience.     Schedules 
are  arranged  giving  the  number  of  shares  to  which  a  girl  is 
entitled  for  each  age  year  from  Hi  to  21,  and  for  each  service 
year  from  1  to  8,  the  increase  from  year  to  year  in  both  cases 
being  the  same.     Thus   in    the   matter   of  pay   one   year's 
service    is    the  eciuivahmt  of    f..urteen  years   of  age,    three 
years  of  service  the  (Miuivalent  of  si.xteen  years  of  age,  etc.' 
Thus  a  girl  who  is  fifteen,  with  one  year's  service  to  her  credit, 
will    earn   the  .same  as  a   new    girl,   si\te(-n    years   of  age.' 
Neither  age  nor  experience  is  ;i  mcasur.'  of  efficiency,  but  such 
a  share  system  is  probably  apijro.ximately  just. 


•^     it 


TiMK  A\i>  Mediim  ok  Payiny;  Off 

Desirable  Frequency  of  Payment.  -  The  employer  has 
usually  small  leew.iy  in  the  matter  of  the  frequencv  of 
wage  payment.  Two  thirds  of  the  Slates  in  this  country 
have  laws  c.mfining  the  pay  period  to  th,.  week,  fortnight, 
or  month  ;ind  most  of  tlies,>  bring  it  within  the  semi-monthly 
pcrioil.  In  the  absence  of  l;,\v,  custom  has  established  the 
weekly  p;iy-day  for  the  rank  and  file  of  employes  in  the  in- 
dustrial worM.  The  fn-.iuent  payment  is,  of  course,  to  the 
advant.'ige  of  the  employe-  in  tliat  il  obvi;ites  ihe  expense 
of  credit,  and  although  it   m-Miis  (he  additional  cost  to  the 

•■tnployer  of  extra  pay-roll  clerks,  it  is  usuallv  the  most  satis- 
f. .,.♦,,_ i  I,     11.  I     .  ... 

::•-•-•-•„•:;.      :;;;■:;;;;!;.        ;-,;y(ni.i     liic    .>i  iidliai  lOU     aS    lO    pCTioUS    of 


220 


TIIK    HUMAN    FACTOR    IX    INDUSTRY 


paymont.  sovoml  States  roquiro  that  wajios  1„>  paid  within 
work  hours  in  order  to  save  th(>  tim(>  of  the  employe  The 
far-seeing  einploy(>r  will  prefer  to  devis,.  some  method  of 
facilitatm-  the  di.trihulion  of  wages  within  the  work  hours 
rather  than  tolrra  ■  ihe  fri-ioii  winch  accompanies  the 
"  after  hours  "  payi.ient. 

Legal   Tender   the   Desirable    Medium.  -  According    to 
tlic    comuK.n    law,    unl.-s    expressly    contracted    otluTwise. 
legal   tender  is  the  rcciuircd  nicdiuui  and  contracts  to  the 
contrary  are    luroming  oi.solrtc     The  store  order,  lu.wever 
still  exists,  particularly  where  the  monthly  payment  is  made.' 
This  has  l,een  severely  ;,nd  jn-tlv  criticized  l)ecause  it  re- 
stricts the  wage  earner's  lii.erty  .and  often  places  him  at  the 
mercy  of  the  uiis.a-upulous  employer  who  can  reduce  wages 
by  charging  compaiatively  high   prices  for  supplies  hougiit 
on    credit.     ,^„n,e   .States    prohibit    the   companv   store  en- 
tirely, .some  regulate    tlu>  prices  an<l  <iualitv  of  goods    sold 
m  such  stores,  .and  others  l..gislate  against   the  use  of  coer- 
cion m  irgard  to  tr.iding  with  c..mpany  stores.     Abuses  seem 
inevitable  wherever  the  employer  p.ays  on  such  a  credit  basis. 
The  Mtuation   in    the   "  on<>   industry   town"   is   fre(|Uently 
(hfliiMilt    because   faialities   f,,r   retail    buying   must    be   pni- 
vided   .and   th(>   cc.rporation    is  som.'timcs  the  onlv  .agtmcy. 
Here,  however.  ;i  cobper.ativ.'  store  ,and   the  c.ashOr  check 
medium  of  payment  may  soha^  the  problem. 

The  Check  vs.  the  Cash.  —  It  is  easy  to  di<-nse  of  the 
company  store  and  credit  <.r  "  truck  "  system  [.avment 
on  the  ground  of  justice,  but  less  e.asy  to  determine  the 
relative  value  .,f  the  cheek  or  cash  pnywrni.  Kmployers 
F^refer  th(>  check  because  it  provides  a  simple  receipt  svs- 
tem  without  th.-  ditli,ailty  of  handling  l.arg.'  funds.  The 
employe  obj.-et-^  tn  tl,,.  Hieek  because  it  involv.-s  double 
labor  in  pr..<aninii  his  w.iges.  Moreover,  the  wage  earn(>r 
rarely  has  a  bank  account  ,ind  is  ;,pt  to  cash  his  ch(N-k 
at    :_x    near-bv  stori'    •!■!:!   -;!!fi::    t]:^.   .>■....,,,.!    :i...i   :^    •.• 


METHOD   OF   RFMUXE RATION 


221 


quently  charged  rather  than  go  further  afiekl  in  ?eareh  of 
a  bank. 

The  Self-identifying  Check.  —  Xew  York  Ciiy  has  found 
a  new  method  of  check  payment  for  city  employes  which 
seems  to  have  most  of  tlie  advantages  of  cash  payment 
and  few  of  its  (h',i\v!);u'ks.-"  It  . insists  in  the  use  of  the 
self-identifyinji  checks,  similar  to  the  express  company  check 
used  by  traveleis.  The  employe  must  siy;n  his  name  in  the 
left-hand  corner  of  the  check  in  a  space  jjrovided,  in  the 
presence  of  th(>  pay-roll  clerk.  On  cashing  it  at  a  store  or 
bank  he  ap;ain  indorses  the  ch(>ck.  Two  hundred  banks 
in  New  York  City  agreeil  to  rec()y;nize  these  checks  at  par 
value  and  consequently  even  fli(>  small  .stores  accept  these 
readily  negotiable  checks  witliout  discount. 

The  cash  payment  remains  the  more  popular  one  with 
all  employes  and  the  need  is  to  find  th(^  most  rapi<l  and  safe 
way  of  distributing  the  cash.  Tsually  the  employe  goes  to 
the  pay  office,  n'ceives  his  pay  env(dope  and  signs  a  receipt. 
This  takes  consid(>rable  tim(\  .Many  larger  conc(>rns  in- 
stead distribute  the  pay  envelopes  to  theii'  employes  at 
their  work.  The  pay  envelop(>  of  the  Metroixijitan  Life 
Insurance  Company  is  unique.  The  employe^  signs  in  ;i 
space  provided  on  the  envelo|)e  face  and  stamped  witli  a 
date.  One  envelope  is  used  for  twelve  weeks  so  that  the 
identification  of  signatures  is  easy,  the  liother  of  inmnner- 
able  pay  slii)s  is  dotK^  aw.iy  with,  and  tlie  face  of  the  enve- 
lope alone  is  preserved  as  a  record  of  wages  received. 

Deferred  Payment.  The  jiroblem  of  computing  pay 
rolls  and  the  inn)ort.ince  to  the  employmcMit  de[)artmeiit 
of  obtauiing  interviews  with  those  who  are  leaving  make 
it  frequently  necess.My  that  the  pay  week  and  the  i)ay  day 
should  not  coincide.  l)ut  th.at  the  pay  da\-  lie  from  three 
days  to  .n  week  late,-  than  the  pay  week.  .\n  example  of 
such  a  plan  is:  a  ivorkman  who  beuins  work  on  Tuesd.iy 
may  receive  his  pay  a  week  from  the  following  Thursday. 


222 


Till-;    HUMAX    FA(^TOR    IX    IXDUSTRY 


If  ho  Sii(i,i!  1  (jMit  n-ithoiit  notice  on  Iho  Friday  aftor,  ho 
forfeits  his  pay  from  Monday  to  Thursday  unless  he  re- 
turns to  the  pay  ofBce  on  some  pay  day.  If  a  dose  record 
of  absentee's  is  kept  in  the  pay  office  and  the  pay  envelopes 
of  al)s(-nt  employees  an-  checked,  it  is  readily  possil)Ie  to  ol)- 
tain  an  intervicnv  with  the  emphjye  who  has  quit  and  aseer- 
tain  the  cause  of  his  k'aviiif;;. 

Witli  tlie  Westin<ih()use  Electric  and  Manufacturing 
Company  an  (-mploye  may  receive  his  full  pay  on  the  day 
he  (juits  if  he  gives  three  days' notice  and  tliis  also  provides 
the  employment  department  with  the  opportunity  for  an 
interview."'' 

It  may  l)c  feasible  to  pay  th(>  workei'  in  full  the  day  he  quits, 
even  without  notice,  pro  '  led  he  is  s(Mit  to  the  employ- 
ment department  for  an  iineiview  ;uid  must  prt>sent  a  re- 
lease slip  from  that  department  before  his  full  pay  is  given 
him.  This  function  of  the  jiay-roll  department  — to  act  as 
a  connecting  lirds.  between  the  employment  manager  and  the 
discharged  or  (piitting  employe  —  is  absolutely  essential 
to  the  succe'^s  of  any  efforts  made  to  stabilize  the  forc(>. 
This  m;iy  make  it  i)ossibIe,  too,  to  arrange  for  an  advance 
or  loan  in  in-tances  where  the  employe  is  leaving  solely  in 
order  to  obtain  immediate  funds. 


Coop?:uATioN  OF  Employers  a\d  Employes 

Organized  Labor  and  Wages ;  Scientific  Management 
and  Profit-sh.-.ring.  It  is  the  (piestion  of  wages  and  th(> 
division  of  profit  whicli  h;is  brought  the  laI)or  movement 
into  (Duscious  existence  and  no  emjjloyer  can  hope  now  to 
S()lv(>  tile  i)roblems  of  l;il)or  remuneration  without  careful 
consideratioti  of  the  worker's  point  of  view,  lOven  in  the 
period  between  ISSl  and  l',»()(),  when  tlie  tiade  unions  were 
.struggling  for  recognition,  .".."»  pi-r  cent  of  all  strikes  and 
lockuuln  Wvn:  cau.seu  ijy  a  liispuie  over  wages  and  over  iiaif 


METHOD    OF    REMUXERATIOX 


223 


of  thes(>  strikes  wciv  succpssful.^'  Tlu-  National  Iiuliis- 
trial  CoiitViriur  Board  classilic.l  siiikcs  otHaifrinir  from 
April  to  October,  1917,  atrordintr  to  demands,  and  7»).r>  per 
cent  of  them  all  were  for  a  raise  in  waues,  and  7.1!)  per  cent 
of  these  were  wholly  (       )artially  siiccessfni.'-'' 

It  is  not  only  the  [.asic  wa)-:e  rat.'  which  concerns  the 
workers.  There  has  heen  opposition  (jti  the  part  of 
organized  labor  to  the  introduction  of  scientific  manage- 
ment and  to  profit-sharing.  Workers  and  labor  leadens 
almost  uniformly  object  to  scientific  management  on  the 
l)asi.s  that  it  means  a  greater  ilegree  of  specializatioi:  tlian 
at  present,  with  greater  strain  on  the  worker,  and  gives 
the  employer  more  complete  pow(>r  over  the  workers 
than  before,  because  it  deprives  the  worker  of  all  general 
knowledge  of  tli(>  trade,  a  knowledge  which  in  the  past 
has  been  the  capital  of  t!ie  skilled  craftsman.  The  ob- 
jection to  most  profit-sharing  schemes  mad.>  by  labor  is 
that  it  means  the  deferred  and  uncertain  payment  of  wages 
due. 

Workshop  Committee  the  Possible  Solution.  —  The  so- 
called  "workshop  committ(>e  "  inovem(>nt,  in  its  attempt 
to  bring  employer  and  employe  together  in  amicabl.-  dis- 
cussion of  the  terms  of  cmi)Ioyment  at  regulai'  intervals, 
appears  to  many  manufacturers  th(>  solution  of  industrial 
unrest.  Coiiperation  of  this  sort  has  jxTmitted  the  success- 
ful introduction  of  both  scientific  management  and  profit- 
sharing  in  one  industry. 

Scientific  Management  Accepted  by  Shop  Committee.  — 
The  Packard  Piano  Company  found  it>  2()r)  employes  lirmly 
opposed  to  the  iniroducti.iii  of  scientific  managenuait  until 
a  series  of  weekly  and  occasionally  bi-weekly  shop  confer- 
ences was  started  in  1911.  Immediately  scientific  manage- 
ment was  accepted  because  the  woikeis  were  given  the  choice 
of  deciding  for  or  against  it  after  hearing  a  full  discussion  of 
Its  value.     li"  tlie  principle  of  collective  agreement  is  accepted, 


224 


THP]    II UMAX    FACTOR    IX    IXDUSTRY 


tlicic  would  seem  to  Ix'  nothing  to  hinder  the  application  of 
sciciitiiic  iiK'thods  in  dctfnuiniiiji  the  standard  rate  of  p'-o- 
duction  and  the  i)artiiailar  point  ui  clHcicncy  which  de- 
serves additional  icward.  In  any  plan  the  basic  wage 
on  which  the  dil'l'crcntial  I'oi'  an  additional  output  is 
reckoned  is  the  fundanc>'ntal  coii^ideialion  and  adjustable 
by  discussion  and  coniproniise.  But  it  will  usually  be  found 
that  the  work(M-s'  interest  is  ui  the  amount  of  wages  and  not 
in  the  method  of  its  determination.  \\'hen  the  danger  of 
"  soldiering  "  on  the  job  during  task-setting  is  removed, 
there  may  be,  however,  little  need  to  reson  to  any  elaborate 
premium  system  to  icduce  the  workers'  unit  wages.  Per- 
liai)s  a  guaranteed  wage  wiih  .dl  output  paid  for  at  tiie  same 
rates  will  bi-  the  simnlot  methdd  of  remuneration  for  work 
which  can  be  staiidardizi'd. 

Labor's  Attitude  to  Profit-sharing.  —  Obviously,  [)rofit- 
sharing  does  not  ali'eci  the  fundauicntal  economic  organiza- 
tion, as  its  advocat;s  ha\i'  so  often  claimed.  Companies 
adopt  profit-sharing  to  increase  production  in  the  belief 
that  the  allotment  of  pi'oportionate  dividends  t(j  labor 
most  successfully  acconiplislies  tlii>.  Occasionally  a  conr- 
pany,  such  as  th(>  Maison  Leclaire.  places  a  limit  on  the 
dividends  which  may  be  (leclare<l  on  stock,  but  usually 
profit-sharing  is  pmcly  an  eftieieiicy  measure  with  definite 
limitation.-;  and  thos(>  who  favor  it  should  not  deceive  them- 
selves in  thinking  that  it  alone  is  a  silencer  of  labor  agitators. 
But  labor  in  turn  need  not  main.iain  its  suspicious  attitude 
towards  it  where  the  underlying  princijiles  in  practice  are 
those  outlined  by  Mr.  Dennison  and  his  eolLahorators, 
namely:  that  profit-sharing  nuist  not  limit  the  partici- 
pators' freedom,  that  the  system  mu^t  be  clearly  under- 
stood in  advance  Ity  all  concerned,  that  the  distribution 
should  be  reasonably  fretiuent,  and  that  it  should  not  be 
accompanied  by  low  wages  and  long  hours. 

Management-sharing    the    Solution.  —  One    suggestion 


METHOD  OF  REMUNERATION 


225 


made  by  Mr.  Donnisoii  and  his  collcatiucs  Is  that  profit- 
sharing    should    he    accouii)anicd     l)y    mandgcmetit-sJiaring. 
The  rases  of  the  Jacob  Dold  Packing  Company  of  BufTalo 
and  tho  Wayn(>  Knitting   .Mills   of  Fort   Wayne   are  cited. 
In"   these   companies   the   e.xecutives   and   heads   of    depart- 
ments who  shaie  in  the  profits,  form  advisory  councils  in 
business    management    and    in    the    administration    of    the 
profit-sharing.      Opening   all    problems   of   management    to 
the  discussion  and  decision  of  the  entire  working  force  in 
weekly   shop   conferences   in   the   P.ickard   Piano   Company 
has  led   to  the  adoption  of  a   profit-sliaring  scheme  wliich 
divides   the  savings  in   production   costs  every   two  weeks 
equally  between  the  company  and  the  employes,  the  latter 
being  paid  in  dividends  on  wages.     At  tlu>  end  of  the  first 
month  the  cost  of  [)roduction  was  cut  l)y  11  per  cent,  which 
meant  a  dividend  of  ■)]  per  cent  to  the  company  and  to  the 
men    both.     Later,   and   with   the   consent    of   the   woiking 
force,  hours  were  reduced  from  ten  to  eight,  for  an  expei'i- 
mental    period    of   sixty    d.iys,  and    an    increa.<ed    efTiciency 
in  that  period  resulted  in  a  saving  of  If,  per  cent   in  costs, 
and  a  dividend  on  wagvs   of  S  pei-  cent    was  paid  the  em- 
ployes.    In  this  case  the  sharing  m)  man.-.gement  and  profits 
has  result(>d  in  a  great  economy  in  y.oduction  as  well  as  in 
time  and  effort. '-'= 


CHAPTER    IX 
RKFRKSIIMFAT   AND    IMirREATIOX 

R'::sT  ronnis  atid  cafclorias  aro  iiitcfiral  parts  of  a  inodorn 
l)Usiii('ss  oifiaiiizatiuii.  They  liavc  r(.!ii('  as  industry  has 
n\'iliz('(l  the  need  of  cliiniiiatiiig  f;;tmu(' and  lia~  appreciated 
tlie  close  relations  hetweeii  inaxiniuni  prodii'lion,  pood 
li.  ailh  of  employes  and  attractive  surroundmjis  for  workers. 
Just  as  saf<  ty  devices,  no  niattca'  how  costly,  ;u'e  consi(.iTod 
indispensahle  from  tiie  staiidpoinl  of  production,  so  is  (>(|uip- 
nient  of  this  kind  looked  upon  ;>s  a  nece^^ity  cost. 

I^eereationa!  activit  ies  cariied  on  or  fosteieil  hv  ai>  industry 
during  leisure  liours  are  essentially  different.  Tlc^e,  r.inning 
from  a  h.'iseball  t(>ain  or  aiuiu;d  picnic  to  a  fully  expanded 
propran,  crntei'infi  ai'ound  a  com|)any  countiy  clul>  have 
l)(>en  devi'Ioped  to  in(  re.ase  morale  and  family  fci  linp;  in 
industry.  .\ltliouj;h  many  experiments  in  this  field  h.ive 
l)een  re;ison;dil\  successful,  there  is  an  increasiufj.  >kepti(  ism 
n^trardiiii:  iheii-  v.iliie  to  I  he  corporation  ;nid  theii'  apprecia- 
tion liy  the  emptoyis.  Many  em|)loyi'rs  fid  tli.it  the  Iri'^ure 
hours  of  tlie  employes  should  he  .'is  far  I'enioxed  fiom  the 
f.iitory  atmosj)here  .as  po^silile.  ( leor^e  li.amiey,  Secretary 
of  the  JTiternatiotial  Fl.arvester  .\--ocial  ion,  has  express(>d 
this  |i(iiiit  of  \  iew.  "  It  is  a)  le.-isl  ijiie.^l  ion.iMe  whether 
the  emplnyer  has  ,-iiiy  riuht  to  follow  the  emiiloye  home  fiom 
fh(>  factoiy  and  iiitrmle  on  his  dome-lie  and  social  life,  iioi- 
should  there  he  ;iny  need  in  a  citv  of  ^i/e  ;md  deeent  uo\-erii- 
mcnt.  If  ,i  [il.iiit  i-  in  .i  .-mall  town  leereat  ioii.il  fr.it'wes 
iniiiht  lie  de-ital'li'  "  '  The  |)rolilem  is.  however,  inori-  than 
geographiial.     'l"he    -|iliit    hehiii  I    thee    unde'takiiiu.s    and 


REFRESHMENT   AXD   RECREATION  227 

their    inannooniont    is   of   (Mnml    importance.       Tiio    soeial 
iietivities  ec.nteiinjr  around  the  industry  should  he  .leveloped 

hy  the  team  work  of  tl r.iploycs  with  tlie  view  of  educating 

the  workers  themselves  ultimately  to  earry  on  the  activities. 


Pi 

I'M- 1 


Lunch  Rooms  and  Caketkuias 

Need  for  Lunch  Rooms.  -  The  "  di„„er  pail"  with  its 
cold,  unapi)etiziM-  1,„„.|.,  ,,iten  at  a  machine,  or  ..  window  >ill, 
on  the  stairway,  or  on  the  curbstone,  is  passing  into  history' 
The  size  of  our  cities,  the  American  custom  of  a  compara- 
tively short  noon-hour  hreak  which  makes  it  difficult,  if 
not  impossil-'e,  for  the  worker  to  return  home  for  his  midday 
meal,  and  the  ai)preci;ition  l,y  emi)lovers  of  flic  connection 
between  good  food  an.l  effi.aVncy  .ar(>  responsibl,>  for  the 
development  of  lunch  rooms  and  cafeterias.  The  fact  that 
the  British  ("(•mmittee  foun<i  at  le.ist  ir,  per  cent  of  the 
munitions  workers  undernourished-'  indicat.-d  ;,  distinct 
need  for  Imintr  rheap,  nouri^liinj^  foo.i  av.nlal.l.'  for  all 
einph)y,.s.     A  lar^e  HrJstoI  firm  f..und.  ,.,ftcr  providmti  their 

!"'"'''">■*■■"  ^^•'^''  *■ '  ''<   '■"^<    P'ice,   that    a  ^n'adu.d   reduction 

in  sickness  rate  followed,  until  event  u.dlv  it  droppe.j  to  one 
half  what  it  h.ad  been  previouslv.^ 

Different  Types  of  Lunch  Room,c=.  The  arran^r,,,,,,,,, 
nm<le  for  providing  hot  lunches  for  op.a-.it  ivs  i,,  the  plant 
••"■•<  many  ,and  varied  from  th,.  ^,as  jet  in  ,  d;,rk  corner  of 
llK>worksh,.pov.r  which  ,an  improvi^Ml  iron  lin^i  hoMs  the 
<<'IT.'e  pot  while  iipturn.Ml  |„,xes  ser\,.  as  t,.d.les  and  .•hairs, 
to  the  .hint/  de.'., rated  dininu-r.)om  with  sm.d!  t,ili|e<  an.l 
^^ervic.^  Th..  type  .and  ;mi..unt  of  ac  ,,inmodati..n  to  !„>  pr.)- 
vided  d..p.-nd  on  the  dist.an.v  of  th..  la.'torv  from  th..  h.,m<-s 
".  th..  work,.rs,  11...  Lindof  work..>ss..rv.d,  and  tl,..  number 
and  .lualil;.  ,.f  n<  itiiil„,rinu  r.-^t. a ur.m's.  \,;  ,„,(,„„.,.,„,,„ 
s-parat,..l  from  the  workroom  for  the  u.nk.rs  bnnuinK 
then   lunches,   with   tal,le  room,  chairs,  an.l  u..nmn>r  pLUcs, 


228 


THE   HUMAN   FACTOR   IN    INDUSTRY 


may  ho  consichMvd  a  inininium  and  is  necessary  whether 
thi'i';'  is  provision  for  scrvinji;  food  oi-  not. 

Cafeteria.  -  The  most  popular  form  of  euiphnTs'  restau- 
rant is  tlic  si'lf-.stTvifc  cafeteria.  Variety  of  food  is  combined 
with  clieapne.^s  l)y  rechiein^;  tlio  amount  of  service  needed. 
The  speed  with  ,  Inch  food  can  be  s(>rved  is  another  advan- 
tajie.  Confusion  can  be  avoided  by  pnvidinj^  ample  room 
and  a  sufticieni  number  of  trained  employes  at  the  counter. 

Construction.  —  The  lack  of  adi'Cjuate  restam-ant  facilities 
to  deal  with  tiie  larger  number  of  workers  employed  in  the 
war  industii(>s  h'd  to  the  extensive  surveys  on  the  subject 
undertaken  by  the  British  Ileidth  of  Munitions  Workers 
Committee  and  the  I'liited  States  ICmergencv  Fleet  Corpora- 
tion. The  latter  report  gives  all  the  technical  details  of 
proper  cafeteria  const I'uct ion  and  e(jui])ment,  including  a 
plan  for  a  separate  restaurant  laiilding  where  needed. 

Plan.  The  numl-.er  of  entrani'cs  to  a  cafeteria  is  deter- 
mined by  the  numl)er  of  i)eo|)l(>  which  it  is  to  accommodate. 
'I  he  "one-way"  [jlan  has  a  single  entrance  and  a  single 
food  counter,  while  the  "two-way"  cifetta'ii  is  designed 
with  a  doul)le  entianee,  each  side  containing  the  same  array 
of  food.  The  former  is  all  tliat  is  required  in  ,a  small  plant, 
while  the  latter  is  needed  when  large  grosips  (»f  workers  are 
handled.  Many  liiin^  provide  separate  rooms  for  their  men 
and  women  employe^,  and  some  have  s])e(  ial  dining-rooms 
for  the  executives  and  oflice  workns. 

The  main  poi.its  in  construction  are  that  the  kitchen 
should  lie  centrall\'  located  and  that  the  whole  unit  should 
have  i^ood  lighliiig  ami  ventilation.  Railings  and  barriers 
are  re(iuir{>d  in  front  of  all  counters  to  maintain  order  in 
the  lilies,  iiiid  the  couiitei^  themselves  should  be  built  of 
■-'illii'iciit  --i/.e  to  nccouiiiiodile  t  he  food  wi'  hout  crow  ding  and 
be  guarded  io  prevent  it  from  Ixinti  h.andled.  I'liulit  to  ten 
S(|u:  re  feel  per  person  i<  the  .amount  of  space  recommended  by 
both  the  I'liti-ii  lleallli  of  .Muiutioii>  Workers  Comniitl<.-e  and 


REFRESHMENT   AND    RECREATION 


229 


by  tho  New  .Icrsoy  Depiirtmctit  of  L 


covered  witli  linoleum,  wliife  til 


il)or.     Hard  maple  tables 


been  found  satisfact 


orv 


CI 


e,  or  a  composition  fflatss  have 


Kitchen    Equipment.  —  Tl 


lairs  seem  pi-cfcral)le  to  stools.'' 


igc 


machinery   includes    one    (cii-foot    vru 
machine,   one    potato-peel inti    machii 
machine',  and  one  meat-cut titifj;  niarliine. 
cares  for  7(>0  patrons  a  day  ii 


U()r(>    essential     restaurant 


one    disliwas 


hing 


le,   one    bread-cuttintr 


Tl 


lis  ( 


1  one  plant.     Tli 


ing 
'(luipnient 


one  plant.  1  he  initial  expense 
of  labor-.saviiig  devices  is  large,  though  their  installation  in 
the  end  is  economical.  The  National  Lamp  Works  of  the 
General  Electric  Company  gives  a  list  of  .standard  cafeteria 
utensils  to  accommodate  240  employes.  The  li.st  of  cafeteria 
e(iui[)meiit  in(ludi\s:  " 

I  tcii-tjallon  spray  cofTcc  urn 

1  twonty-fifalloii  aluiiiinuiii  stock  pot  with  eovor 

I  twcnty-tivc-tralloii  ulutninuiii  stock  pot  with  cover 

1  twcnty-fjalloM  i„si,l,.  l.oiK.r  litl..d  to  tweuty-tivo-gallou  stock  pot 

1  fiftfM>ii-qiiart  stock  pot  with  cover 
I  standard  ^I'alc  scoop 
1  drainiiin;  "ifU  4'X'-''(>" 

The  i'(iuipment   necessary  to  feed  lOOO  men  a  day  in  one  of 
the  larg(«  American  >liipyar;is  is  given  as  follows:  * 


I  rcfri(,'rralor 

I  iiiiir-foot  steam  tahle 

'J  cofTcc  urns 
3(K)  tr.iys 
<)(«)  soup  Itowls 
(><Mt  dinner  plates 


I'iMi  pic  plates 
(MH/  iuiixcs 
(UK)  forks 
(MH)  tcaspootis 
(KH) soup  spoons 

I  tnoilcrii  sicani  <lislnvasht>r  and 
tlryini,'  iipparalus 


Cost.  -  The  price-;  will  naturally  vary  Willi  I  he  eom- 
munitw  'i'lii'v  will  <!(  jieiid  mi  the  ileitis  ,,f  ,■,,.{  tli;it  are  to 
be  included,  llii'  saricty  iS  iuo^l,  |)iv|..,red  .hkI  (he  miiiiber 
of  per  oris  s,>rved.  M.mv  firnis  l.e.ar  the  cr)st  nf  rent,  heat,  and 
light  as  well  as  a  certain  amount  of  supervixay  service.      In 


PI 


ip! 


;.l 


230  THE    HUMAN    FACTOR    IN   INDUSTRY 

this  ciiso  the  price  of  the  food  covers  approxiinatelj'  only  its 
cost  and  |)r('paration.  In  other  cases  the  food  prices  are 
raised  to  iiichide  all  the  costs  of  maintaining  the  restaurant. 
A  tj'pical  caf(>teria  menu  for  March,  1918,  provided: 

V'cm'tabic  sdiij) $.05 

Tomato  soup .05 

Sinolicil  pork  ti'iidcrloin .15 

Itoast  vral .18 

Ham  ati(i  beans .15 

Maslu'd  i)otatoes         .06 

Pics,  cakes          .05 

Tea,  eolTee,  milk .05 

[■''reiieli  roast .15 

With  a  daily  average  of  7t'>()  patrons  from  among  the  2-100 
hands,  the  total  monthly  ruiming  cost  is  betw'cn  S12t)()  and 
Si;}()()  and  the  monthly  inci)me  $1  KM).  The  initial  cost  of 
((uarters  and  c(iuipmciit  was  al  't  .^KXH).  The  stalT,  ('(in- 
sisting of  otie  chef,  one  assistarit,  one  dishwasher,  one  poiter, 
three  counter  gills  and  two  extra  girls,  served  KK)  lunclies  ia 
fi\'e  minutes.-' 

The  self-supporting  cafeteria  at  Kops  Brothers,  managed 
by  tlie  iMuployers'  .Mutual  Service  .\ssocial  ion,  provi(l(>d 
the  following  l)ill  of  fa;e  in   i!)l!t: ' 

('ofTii'.  tea     or    cocoa —  ("orncil  luef  liasii    .     .     .      $.08 

ariip !f.OI{  ( 'arrots  and  peas     .      .     .         .05 

Hot     (M-    iol(l     milk    -  a  Hakcd  apples (Mi 

t,'lass (M  |{eer  stew 08 

Wheat     or    r.\('    Iread  Potato  salad 04 

I  -lice (II  Hakcil  heaiis  and  tomato 

K'\c  l.rca<l  1  -lices   .      .         .0:5  sauce 05 

Sand'A  idles (l.i  Salmon  salad 08 

Souiis      i.ill      kindsj     or  Pics 05 

clam  cIi'UmIit       .      .      .  .'.).">  PllddillL^s        rice.  tajMocii, 

.Meal    iialls   wi'ji   lomalo  cli late,  on  oriistarcli         .i)r> 

sauce  ...         .d.")  Drake's        <-ilroii        and 

Fish  cakes   wiih    tomato  sponui' cako 03 

s.'iui'e (IS  .\pplis.     pears,    or;ui».'cs 

l-'rankturtcrs,        J  lor       .        .lis  (iMsea--oii) 04 


REFRESHMENT   AXD   RECREATION  231 


On  the  menu  of  the  Continental  Motor  Company  of  Detroit, 
in  J917,  the  soup  is  op,  meat  70,  vegetables  3c,  pastry 
and  fruit  "x*,  bread  and  roils  with  butter  :i^.  The  average 
price  of  the  meals  bought  is  l.-i0.8  ^i^,.  average  lunch 
check  of  the  Filene  Co6p(>rative  Association  dining-room 
was  13(f.^ 

Free  Lunches.  —  A  number  of  banks,  trust  and  life 
insurance  companies  having  ;i  large,  number  of  r^h^rical 
employes  provid(>  lun.'heons  free.  Th(>  Metropolitan  Life- 
insurance  Company,  for  instance,  believing  that  many  of 
their  clerks  did  not  buy  wholesome  lunches,  I)(>g:ui  in  1908 
to  serve  a  complete  noonday  meal  to  all  Home  Office  em- 
ployes, now  numlnring  tiOOO.     A  typical  menu   follows: 

Baked  FFjiiii  \vi(h  riury^uiidy  .Sane*. 

Boiled  Potatoes  c.rn  on  Cob 

(Jingerhread  or  Choeolate  lee-i-reani 

Bread  and  Butter 
Tea  ("„|Tee  Milk 

Rice  and  milk  or  crackers  and  milk  are  servcnl  to  those  who 
prefer  it. 

In  order  to  facilitate  servic<\  the  meal  is  placc.l  on  the 
tabic  just  before  (li<-  ;nriv,d  of  I  lie  clerks.  Wlien  a  choice,  is 
provided  the  order  is  pfiec-d  ,,n  tl;;.  i)reviou-  day,  Men 
and  women  aie  served  in  sepanite  rooms.  The  luncheon 
is  .served  in  three  siiifts  forty-five  minutes  apart.  The 
<'ost  to  the  company  exclusive  of  rent  was  sliuhtly  over 
L'Si*  a  day  per  clerk  ;  the  total  cost  in  iOI.S  was  .S3.V.),977.M. 
This  outlay  is  justified  a^  an  efTieiency  nie.isure.'" 

Additional  Refreshments  Furnished.  The  Winchester 
Repeat  uig  Arm^  of  X,.w  ll.aven.  Conn.,  oper.ates  co(Tc(> 
iiooths  in  various  part^  of  1  lie  pj.mt .  Cufferr.in  Im-  ,,btaiiied 
at  noon,  at  iiu<lMiLdil,  nid  at  I  \.m  .  eo^tinu  V.  Milk 
at    .W    a    gl.ass    is    ,aNo    <v\:r,\  at    night,  .ind    buttled    nulk 


iilj: 

iijlj 
M 


.1.1  ..t  fi. 


•  'I     111'       I  >(Mii  II  Vine 


232 


THE   HUMAN    FACTOR   IX    INDUSTRY 


Works  in  England  in  addition  to  drinking  water,  froo  milk, 
oatmeal  water,  and  lemon  water  are  supplied  through  the 
day  in  hot  and  dusty  departments.'' 

Menu  and  Diet.  —  The  dietary  shciuld  he  halaneed  and 
varied  from  day  to  day  and  suite(l  to  th(>  type  of  work  in 
which  the  emi)loyes  are  engaged.  For  men  employ(Mi  in 
physical  labor  there  should  he  special  iinphasis  on  (ni(M-gy- 
producing  foods.  The  Briti.sh  Health  of  ^,unitions  Workers 
Connnittee  states  that  (he  niinimum  canteen  diet  for  men 
engaged  in  (his  sort  of  lahor  should  conlain  .'5000  calories 
made  up  of  protein  100  grams,  fat  100  grams,  carhohydratos 
400  grams. '^  An  exc(>llent  hooklet  of  tested  recipe.-;  for 
soups  and  other  foods  has  heen  pul)lish(>d  hy  the  National 
Lamp  Works  of  lh(>  (leneral  l'",lectric  Company  and  will  he 
helpful  on  this  subject.'* 

Ivxpert  dietetic  diicction  or  advice  should  \)v  utilized  when- 
ever possible  to  insi:r(>  noiuishing  food  and  the  essential 
variety  in  menu,  as  w(>ll  as  to  reduce  costs.  In  the  prepara- 
tion of  the  menu  due  consideration  must  be  given  to  the 
food  rcfiuirements  of  racial  and  religious  groups.  The 
lunch  room  can  he  used  as  an  educalion.al  experiment  in 
food  values.  The  New  "k'oik  City  Hea'th  I)epartm(>nt  opcmed 
in  101.')  ;iii  educational  lunch  room,  of  f)articulai'  interest. 
The  tnitritive  values  of  (>ach  article  of  food  were  giv(>n  on  the 
menu  and  proper  conil)in;ttions  suggested.  Much  d;iv  the 
m(>nus  (»f  two  ])roperly  l)Mlance(i  luncheons  wei'c  ])iinted  and 
that  containing  the  best  food  v.alues  w.as  ficciuently  the  less 
exiK-nsive.  Development  of  the  lunch  idoni  along  this 
line  would  (  ii;ible  one  to  select  the  liest  nicil  for  the  least 
amount  of  money.''' 

A  i)roblem  of  the  factory  restaurant  is  its  managi-ment. 
Th'>  Me1ropc!!t;iii  Life  Iiisuranc(<  Company  rct.iins  all  con- 
trol (if  il<  free  luni'li.'"  The  employe-  of  the  .|elTi(y  Manu- 
factiniim  ("onipii,\.  < 'olumbus.  (>hio,  -uoport   .and   manage 


B'^' 


KEFHESHMEXT    AND    RECREATION 


233 


tion  has  coiniaitteo  numaficMnent  for  their  (hiuiifr-rooiii  h) 
which  1200  pcopK'  an-  served  daily.'  The  Coiitiiieiital 
Motor  Company  of  Detroit  allows  an  outside  caterer  a  small 
profit,  but  fixes  the  prices  at  which  tlie  dishes  may  be  sold. 
The  company  furnishes  space,  heat,  and  lij;lit  free."*  It  is 
probal)Iy  ad\isaiile  to  have  the  responsiliiUty  foi'  I'estaurants 
vested  in  a  conunitlee  represi'iiting  einployei-  and  employes, 
in  order  to  insure  effective  maiia!j;(>ment  and  an  easy  adjust- 
ment of  complaints  about  food  or  pi'ices.  Such  a  c(jnnnittee 
will  pi'ove  advantageous  oven  in  the  case  where  the  company 
pays  the  entire  cost. 

System  of  Payment.  —  Except  in  small  <j:rou])s  where  a 
flat  rate  is  charged  for  meals  it  is  usually  advisable  to  have 
payment  made  to  a  separate  cashier.  This  is  especially 
true  in  caf(>terias.  It  provides  a  comparatively  ea.sy  check 
on  finances  and  facilitates  serving  ])y  eliminating  the  han- 
dling of  cash  at  the  serving  counter.  In  cafeteiias  a  ticket 
puncher  usually  stands  at  the  (muI  of  th(>  food  counter  and 
punches  a  ticket  indicating  th(>  cost  of  the  food,  placing  it  on 
the  tray.  A  cashier  seated  by  the  exit,  of  the  dining-room 
collects  the  money.  In  the  Miller  bock  Company  of  Phila- 
(ielphia  the  employes  may  |)rocure  luncii  tickets  for  twenty 
cents,  forty  cents,  eighty  cents,  or  one  dollar  from  their  fore- 
man and  select  their  limch  accordingly.  The  tickets  aro 
cliarged  to  the  employes'  account.-  by  the  foreman  and  de- 
ducted from  their  jiay  with  a  statement  of  such  deductions 
ren(lere(I  ou  each  jjay  slip.""'  .\  sti'aight  cost  basis  with  i);iy- 
meiit  foi-  each  meal  i<  simpler  and   conse(]uentl\-  picferable. 

Important  Points  in  Running  Factory  Restaurants.  —  In 
genei.d,  in  i)lanning  industiil  restauiants  it  is  of  primary 
imjxirtance  (1)  that  the  meals  should  not  be  <()iisider(><l  a 
substitute  for  gooil  vvaM,.  but  should  be  furnisli<'d  either  at 
cost  price  or  supi)Iied  gratis  by  the  comjiany  simply  ;is  an 
efiiciency  measure,  (2)  that  the  room-  j)rovided  should  be 
anr.ii  TiVciy  v  k\Ui  aiui  iigiii,  {.))  iiiai  iln    HI  \  nig  oi  iiie  meais 


■■:U 


n 


i 


234 


THE    HUMAN    FAC^T01{    IX    INDUSTRY 


be  (^xprditiou.-ly  ni;m;iiioil  hy  ;in  ;i(l(^fiua1(>  sorviri'j;  staff, 
(1)  tliat  tlu'  foo'l  lu>  well  iM('|ia;('(l,  varied  from  day  to  day 
ami  sfi'vcd  hot,  aii<l  (■">)  that  the  cnipioycs  should  ho  p;iven 
soin(>  voice  in  the  inanasiemeiit  of  a  restaurant  whieli  seeks 
to  l)e  self-suppoitinii'.  so  that  Ihen^  may  Ije  no  question  of 
profit  making:  in  eoimeetit)n  with  it. 


Rkst  and  Rkckkatiox   Ixdoms 

Neid  for  Rest  and  Recreation  Rooms.  -  The  rest  and 
recr(>ation  room  has  heeome  a  ])art  of  the  necessary  equip- 
ment in  many  plants.  As  Loid  Leverhulme  says,  "  Rest 
rooms  ■AVc  as  essential  as  ilothinji;."  ''  The  full  benefit  of 
rest  pi-riods,  especially  that  of  the  noon  hour,  can  he  se- 
<an'ed  only  hy  piovidin^  ])lea.-ant  acconunodations  in  which 
relaxation  is  possilile.  Tlu'  immediate  surroundin|j;s  of  the 
factory  ar(!  fre(|uently  uii<lesiral>le  and  it  is  occasionally 
necessary  to  jjrotect  tlu>  employe  and  the  Imsiness  by  keeping 
the  employe  on  the  premises  duiinj;  woikinji  hours,  as  in  the 
ease  of  hiinks,  where  emphtyes  are  allow<(l  to  l(>ave  the 
huildiii^  only  aflei'  the  books  ;ire  closed  and  the  lai.iie  sums 
of  miiney  handled  duriiifj;  the  day  accounted  for.'"*  The 
employei' .approaches  th.e  study  of  rest  and  recreation  rooms, 
Iherefoi'e,  in  the  same  way  tliat  he  does  the  (juestion  of  ude- 
(juate  lij.;htin<i,  heating,  and  -anitatioii. 

A  recent  reixiil  on  this  subject  showed  that  over  50 
per  cent  of  the  \'.\\  concerns  s1\idied  i)rovided  a  loom  or 
rooms  of  thi^  kind  for  the  \\>-c  of  tiieir  employes.  That 
(■mployes  avail  theiiiselves  of  them  is  indicate(l  by  the 
fact  tliat  ti:5  |)er  cent  of  women  emi)Ioyes  and  '2\  per 
cent  of  the  men  made  use  of  Ihem.'^  The  rest  room  of 
the  Dennison  M.iiiufacturmu;  Company  is  used  t)y  from 
;?()-l(l  people  ,1  day,  ordinarily,  aiul  in  hoi  weather,  from 
12U-13U.'^ 


ill 


REFRESIIMEXT   AXD    RECREATION 


235 


Variation  cf  Equipment.  —  Tho  facilities  of  rest  rooms 
range  froi.i  a  few  chairs  at  one  side  of  the  hinch  niuiii  to  the 
luxuriously  appointed  rest  rooms  of  tiie  Curtis  Publishing 
Company  in  riii!a(lel[)liia,  furnish(>(l  in  e\(iuisit(>  taste  and 
containing  such  accessories  as  fresh  cut  flowers.  The  type 
best  suited  to  the  needs  of  a  plant  depends  upon  the  size, 
character  of  work,  and  type  of  employes.  Tlie  re(iuirements 
for  the  rest  room  i)rovidiMl  li\  the  .\merican  Telei)hone 
Company  for  the  use  of  its  switchl)oard  operators  ditTer 
from  those  in  the  rest  room  provided  for  the  men  during 
layovers  by  the  Atchison,  Topeka  and  Santa  Fe  Railroad. 
Again,  men's  rest  rooms  need  usually  i)e  less  pretentious 
than  women's.  In  such  cases  the  reading  and  rest  rooms 
are  separated  from  the  rooms  wh(>re  gatncs  and  dancing  are 
permitted.  The  question  of  s(>parate  lunch  rooms  for  factory 
and  office  workers  must  be  considered. 

Department  Store  Rest  Rooms.  —  Department  stores 
employing  large  mnnbei's  of  women  have  made  a  special 
point  of  providing  rest  rooms  for  their  (>mployes.  B.  Altman 
and  Company  furnishes  spacious  rest  rooms  for  men  and  for 
women  on  the  11th  llooi- in  which  "  to  reail.  oi'  write  letters 
during  working  horns."  On  the  i:5tii  floor  is  a  great  "  silence 
rootn  "  ecjuipped  with  chairs  and  couches,  and  b(>yonil  this 
is  a  sun  parlor  op(>ning  on  to  an  open-air  piomenade.  A 
part  of  this  is  reser\e(l  for  a  smoking  room  for  the  men.-'^ 
Marshall  I'^ield  and  Comp'  ly  provides  a  rei  real  ion  room 
adjoininu:  the  lunch  room  lor  m(Mi  and  women  employes. 
Its  ('(luipment  includ(\s  a  pianola.  There  is  a  reading-room 
ne.nr  by  lor  men  and  women,  with  periodicals  and  magazines. 
The  rest  mow.  of  H.  11.  Macy  of  New  ^'o^k  ( 'ity  is  for  its 
women  employes  only.  Here  one  finds  a  piano,  small  library 
and  matra/.ines.-' 

Telephone  Company  Rest  Rooms.  I{est  rooms  are  part 
of  the  I'egular  e(iuipmeiit  of  most  of  the  telephone  com- 
p.inies  and  are  used  d  .ring  ri'st  and  luueli  hour:;.     The  New 


m 


23() 


TllK    HUMAX    FAC'TOR    IN    [NDUSTRY 


England  Tol.-^phnno  and  T. "  jiraph  Company ,='  tho  Chirago 
Telephone  Company, --  the  Cineinnati  and  Suiinrl)an  Tele- 
phone Company,-''  the  Aiiierican  Telephone  and  Telegraph 
Company  and  many  t)thers  piovide  these  rest  rooms  as  a 
measure  for  health  preservation.  In  the  case  of  the  New 
England  Ccjmpany  the  employes  have  taken  .  pride  in  the 
rooms  and  have  provided  part  of  the  furnishings  themselves. 
The  girls  in  the  Salem  Exchang(>  sold  soap  to  fiu'tiish  their 
room  with  pictures  and  current  periodicals.  Roof-garden 
promenades  have  been  proviiled  in  many  cases. 

Factory  Rest  Rooms  for  Women.  —  Factory  rest  rooms 
for  both  men  and  women  are  increasing  in  numl)er.  Tho 
recreation  rooms  at  the  Kddak  Park  Works  of  1  he  Eastman 
Kodak  Company  are  sit'iatcfl  in  tho  three-story  building 
adjoining  the  factory.  Tlicy  include  separate  rooms  for 
men  and  women. -^  The  National  Cash  Register  Company, 
Dayton,  Ohio;  the  United  Shoe  Machinery  Company, 
Beverly,  Mass.  ;  the  Cleveland  Twist  and  Drill  Company  ;  the 
Wostinghouse  Electric  and  Manufacturing  Company  of 
Pittsl)urgh,  Pa.,  and  the  Shredded  Wheat  Biscuit  Company 
at  Niagara  Falls  furnish  rest  rooms  for  women  only.  Tho 
women  (>mployes  of  the  Westinghouse  Air  Brake  Company 
of  Wilmerding,  Pa.,  use  the  lounge  rooms  of  the  Y.  W.  C.  A. 
clul)  house. 

Factory  Rest  Rooms  for  Men.  —  Men's  rest  rooms  are 
not  as  mnnerous  as  women's,  but  a  chit)  room  and  smoking 
room  for  men  during  the  noon  hour  is  desirabl(>.  The  .\meri- 
can  Woolen  Company  providers  the  men's  rest  room  on  one 
side  of  the  restaurant  and  the  women's  on  the  other.  The 
Sliriwin-Williams  Paint  Manufacturing  Company  of  Cleve- 
land has  a  Mien's  club  room,  with  peiiodicals,  for  use  during 
the  noon  hour.-' 

Railroad  Rest  Rooms.-  The  railroad  and  street  railway 
comi>ani('s  have  dev(>loi)ed  the  rest  room  extcnsivelv,  and  con- 
hider  that  there  is  a  very  ilirect  relation  between  it  and  the 


^HJ 


REFRESIIMKXT   AND    RKCRKATION 


237 


efficioncy  of  tlioir  employes.  Frequent  lay^'vers,  when 
formerly  th<>  only  pl:ic(!  to  jj;o  to  was  the  saloon,  some  di.ty 
shed  or  hunk  house,  made  the  introduction  of  attractive 
reading  and  rest  rooms  of  particular  value.  In  tlie  railroad 
business  a  clear  l)rain  is  a  jiriceless  commodity,  and  the 
morale  of  the  railroa<l  men,  in  ord(>r  to  do  the  work  required 
of  them,  nmst  be  al)Ove  normal.--^  The.se  rooius  have  l)een 
installed  in  the  railroad  terminals  or  as  part  of  a  cluli  house 
which  offers  also  sleepinji;  accommodations,  or  a  room  for  this 
purpose  has  \)oon  rented  in  a  hall  or  house.  .Vmong  the 
railroads  that  have  installed  rest  rooms  and  railway  clulis 
at  stopoveis  ar(>  the  .Vtchison,  Topeka  and  Santa  Fe,  the 
Union  Central  and  Southern  Pacific,  the  Chicago,  Burling- 
ton and  Quincy,  the  Chicago  and  North  Western,  the  Grand 
Trunk,  the  Central  Railroad  of  Georgia,  and  the  Penn- 
sylvania Railroad.'-" 

Results  Claimed  for  Railroad  Rest  Rooms.  —  Some  of 
the  results  of  rest  rooms,  claimed  by  the  companies,  are; 
(I)  eliminatinl  gambling  debts,  (2)  competed  successfully 
with  the  saloon,  in  fact,  have  improved  the  tone  of  the 
communities  where  they  were  located,  (3)  have  kept  the 
high  grade  of  workers  by  improving  conditions  of  work, 
(4)  have  practically  eliminated  wrecks  due  to  carelessness 
or  violation  of  rules  and  ('))  have  helped  set  up  standards  of 
courtesy  thionghout  the  system.  They  have  thus  been  a 
valuable  tuisiness  asset  and  a  iiaying  proposition.-'"' 

Street  Railway  Rest  Rooms.  —  The  strcH't  railway  systems 
all  over  the  country,  as  well,  are  installing  similar  rooms  in 
their  terminals  and  at  the  end  of  their  lines.  The  Inter- 
borough  Rapid  Traii-it  Company  of  Xew  York  City  has 
reading,  smoking  and  recn^ation  roiiMis  at  all  its  terminals.-' 
Tlu^se  companies  have  th(>  same  problems  to  meet  as  the 
railroads,  though  llu"  layovers  are  not  as  long  or  the  distances 
as  iinv'.t.  Neverthel'."ss.  jh.ere  is  a  di^titict  fieed  for  rent 
rooms  that  has  been  largely  met  by  the  companies. 


■H 


238 


TH?]    HUMAX    FACTOR    IN    INDUSTRY 


Cost  and  Equipment  of  Rest  Rooms. — Tho  National 
Lainj)  Works  of  the  0<'n(>ral  Electric  Company  has  standard- 
ized the  rest  and  n^cn^ition  rooms  in  their  various  plants. 
Theii'  !)o()k  jiivinjj;  tlie  e(iuipinent  Hsts  and  costs  for  such 
rooms,  f)ased  on  the  neeils  of  a  factory  employing  '3()0  persons, 
225  women  and  7.")  men.  is  exceptionally  valuable.  These 
costs  are  hased  on  ;ui  stlmatod  attendance  of  four  fifths 
of  the  force,  or  240  people.  Piovision  is  mado  for  rest 
rooms  for  men  and  for  women,  and  .idditional  recreational 
space  for  the  latter.  Three  hundred  and  tweiit}'  scjuare  feet 
is  reserved  for  the  nuMi's  room  and  for  the  women's  1220 
s(iuar(>  feet,  and  foi'  the  i(>civatioii  d  ai'ea  1200  scjuare  feet, 
making  a  total  of  2740  .M[uare  fct.  The  men's  rest-room 
(Hiuipment  consists  of : 


(')  ruhhfir  mats 
1  set  checkers 

1  chockerhoiird 

2  crihhago  coimters 
4  packs  cards 

1  sot  chess 


2  settees 
12  .-^traiglit  chairs 

3  gaine  hililes  (round) 
1  niatrazinc  table 
1  faille  lani[) 
0  cusjiidors 

Women's  rest  room  includes: 

10  green  r(>e<l  rockin^^  <'hairs 

10  green  reed  ottomans 

10  green  reed  str;iiL,ht  chair;, 

10  green  rcfd  scttcis 

14  green  li;iir  pillows  for  S(>ttces 

2  green  n  ihI  magazine  stands 

2  green  rt'ed  fern  stands 

'.i  green  gi'ass  rugs 

The  recreational  are;i  is  fitted  with  : 

2\  doz.  hent  wood  chairs 

1  piano 

1  waste  can 

Cost.  — The  c(  4  in  1'.)1S  of  the  men's  rest  room  was  esti- 
mated at  -SIOI.IO.  thi>  wonuMi's  ,S<S()").S;},  ami  the  recreational 


2  green  reed  table  lamps 

1  roll-to|)  desk 

1  swivel  d(^sk  chair 

1  bookcase 

1  telephone  liracket 

1  desk  ti.xturo 

7  i)lants 


REFRIvSHMF.XT    AND    hiX'RKATIOX 


239 


aruii  $304. .")(),  a  total  cxpctiditurc  of  siodl.T:!,  with  ;\  per 
capita  cost  for  ciiiploycs  of  8 1. (»().-■■  Staixlaids  for  furiiisli- 
injr  arnl  installiim  rest  rooms  ajc  In  iiiy;  rapidly  (hn^clopod 
and  complete  equipments  are  now  ohiaiiialile  from  a  number 
of  firms.  One  of  these  otYer'<  three  standard  >cts  of  furnish- 
ings. The  fir-t  type,  for  a  business  employing'  about  75 
women,  acconnnodates  10  persons  at  a  time  in  i  room 
15X20  feet  and  costs  ,?4.")4.4:i.  Tlic  second  is  estimated 
for  a  conceiii  with  about  bS5  wom(  n,  supi)lyin<i'  th(>  ikhmIs  of 
25  at  a  time,  with  a  tloor  sp.aci'  of  15X40  feet,  at  the  c(»st 
of  $707.21  ;  the  tliird  for  750  women,  allowing  150  women 
at  a  time,  costs  $.31()S.71.  The  three  estimates  for  men's 
smoking  rooms  of  the  same  sizes  are  s;]23.;M,  S5S1.41,  and 
$1704.15  respectively.  This  firm  expects  to  suit  the  indi- 
vitlual  need  of  each  concern  and  the  price  These  esti- 
mates are  based  u|)on  the  supposition  that  there  are  two  rest 
periods  per  pei'son  a  day. 

Supervision  of  Rest  Room.  —  The  supervision  of  the  rest 
room  varies  with  different  companies.  The  medical  divi- 
sion of  the  DcnniMin  Manufacturing  ( 'ompany  ha.-  charge  of 
a  rest  room  for  the  2300  employes,  which  is  supervised 
by  the  nurse.  This  comfortably  furnishetl  room  is  uscmI 
by  women  employes  at  th(^  noon  period  and  for  one  lialf 
hour  during  the  working  hours.  .\11  must  report  to  the 
nurse  before  using  tlie  room.'"'  Sears  Roebuck  Company  also 
connects  its  rest  room  with  its  medical  division  and  places 
it  next  to  the  hospital.  Ordinarily  the  lunch  room  and  the 
rest  room  in  the  department  store  or  factory  are  gioupetl 
together,  and  if  any  one  is  placed  in  charge  of  this  division  it 
is  the  welfare  worker  or  a  specia'  matron.  The  rest  and 
reading  rooms  of  the  Atchison.  Topeka  r.nd  ;>anta  Fe 
Railroad  system  are  p!ac(>d  in  the  charge  of  the  sup(>rin- 
tondent  of  the  reading  rooms,  who  snends  most  of  his  time 
traveims  ud  and  down  th.c  ii!!'.'  ori'Miii/inr''  t}!!>  work, 
Each  reudhig  room  is  in  charge  of  a  librarian,  atid  at  the 


:,(.■•. 


i:     i 


I?  i 


Si 


240 


THE    HUMAN    FACTOR    IX    INDUSTRY 


club  house  he  is  usually  assist.-d  I,y  his  wife,  who  acts  as 
matron.-^ 


n  in 


XOON'-HOIH    DlVKRSION 

Length  of  Lunch  Period.  -  There  is  a  wide  variatie.  .. 
tlie  lengtn  of  the  lunch  hour  in  various  plants.  The  Metro- 
politan Life  Insurance  ( 'onu)any,  for  example,  limits  t  he  lunch 
IH'no.1  to  tlurty-five  minutes,  so  ,hat  the  s..vcn-hour  .lav 
"'ay  close  at  l.iiO  i„  the  afternoon.  On  the  other  IuukI 
some  employers  prefer  to  extend  tlu-  hnich  ho;r  bevond  the 
time  reciuired  for  eatin-  so  that  the  cmplovc  mav  relax 
and  be  tully  refresh,.!  menially  and  physically  before 'ivturii- 

'''^  I;'  ^'"'  ■•''"■'•' -"■'•''•''   ->f   u<Tk.     Thirty   minutes   is 

usually  all  that  is  re,,,ure.l  for .  atinj--  if  the  luncheon  facilities 
aif  near  at  hand  and  a.lecjUale. 

Noon  Hour  Activities  Should  Be  Voluntary.  -  If  .,  jonj^er 
pmod  IS  n.  force  it  b.M'o.ne    p,..>,b|,.  |„  ,,1,,,  recreation  ami 
educational  pn.jirams  f(,r  the  n.M.n  hour.     A  lann.         nb,-r 
of    c.,rporati.,r       have     undcrtak.Mi     such     activhies      The 
programs  ollrrcd   vary   from   perform.ances  of  local   musical 
H-'l's  to  a   lecture  on  the  u>c<,f  safety  .o.^l.s.      The  lunch 
hour,  whether  short  or  lon^r,  is  usually  clearly  define.l  a.s  one 
I'J'Iong.nfi  to  the  employe  an-l  in  cons,.,,uen:e  any  a.^tivities 
planned  for  that   !,our  should   be   voluntary   an/l   not    ,.om- 
Piilsory.     There  can  be  no  logical  objection  t..  an  occasional 
''."''''".""""■"♦•••""'   ""■  ■•'"'•M'iancc  of  employes  at    planned 
•I'vers.on  will  mdic.ie  its  ac,  eptability.     To  ,  ,,anv.  however 
su.h  pr,.t;rams,  especially  if   I  hey    are   e,luca,  mnal,  are    not 

•■""ouc.velofhorou^d,  relaxation,  which  i>  the  objci  of  the 
iioon  hour. 

Dancing  l>,nci,m  f,,r  women  h.as  been  found  to  be 
P<'l'"'^"-.  •••^I"'nally  for  th..,e  whus,.  work  does  not  involve 
"">H.  phy-ical  ..xertion.  Most  rest  or  recvat-on  rooms  for 
women   .■on*aui   a  piano  or   victrola   for  dancing.     In    the 


,;r;iU 


REFRESHMENT   AXD   RECREATION  211 

Gorham  Manufacturing  Company,  space  in  tho  women's 
(linmfi-room  i.s  cleared  after  lunch  for  dancing  during  the 
noon  hour.  Occasionally  a  special  room  is  provided  for 
dancuig.  Ordinarily  the  music  is  suppli(>d  hy  the  employes 
themselves.  In  a  few  instance's  it  is  furni.shed  hy  the  com- 
pany every  day  or  on  a  specili,.,!  numher  of  davs  each  week. 
The  dancing  is  usually  liniiled  n,  women,  and'  men  are  not 
permitted  to  participate.  One  .\ew  York  City  depart- 
ment store  forhids  this  foim  ,,f  nooii-hour  diversion  on  the 
grounds  that  there  is  a  fcniptation  for  tlie  girls  to  over- 
stay their  lunch  p-riod  and  that  thev  are  afterwards  too 
tired  to  do  g„„d  work.  This  ol.jectio,,  naturally  applies 
only  when  the  occupation  recjuires  standmg  or  involves 
physical  strain.''* 

Athletics  and  Gymnasiums.  —  .\thletic  fields  or  open 
spaces  .adjoining  the  f.„io,y  arc  popular  during  the  noon 
hour,  especially  in  the  sunimcr  months.  The  shop  base- 
ball team  an  use  tiiis  lime  to  pr.irti.v  an<l  c,ni  play  in 
the  yard  if  no  diam.ui.l  is  pro'idcd.  Temiis  ,and  .,uoit 
courts  ;,re  kept  uj)  hning  the  smnmia-  months  for  tins  use 
!•:  H:own  and  Higelow  n(  St.  Paul.  Minn.'^  Calisthenics, 
under  the  sup.'rvi-ioii  of;,  miuurirnt  gynuia-ium  m^tiu-'tor, 
are  iiistrunuaital  in  rcdnriim  iiiig,,,..  H.  .Mimaii  and  Coni- 
pany  of  New  Vorlc  City  maiilains  ,i  W(ll-c(|nipped  gy-una- 
sium  niKl.a-  the  care  <  I  ,a  cuMiprtcut  1-1, 'her,  wli..  gives  the 
men  and  women  empluyes  s,.)  1  i,,,_r-,|p  .i.-jn,  ,i„n„ir  the  noon 
liour.  This  coueern  cl.aim--  that  llieir  W(.rl<er-  go  to  Imicli 
th.Mo,ighly  tired,. an.l  aft.  r  this  pingiani,  Ihev  return  to  lluar 
places  mentally  .and  pliv-icall  refreshed.  The  in^tru.'tor 
teaches  the  girjs  esp.riallv  how  In  relieve  llieir  liiv.l  nius,.|,.s 
and  how  to  walk  and  t and  s,,  that  thev  can  n-f  tin anselves 
duriim  \      k ."' 

Conrx.cs  and  Entertainments  -  R.  gul.ir  concerts  are 
given  hy  the  musical  cliih^  in  <,>:,|e  tart, airs,  Ai  ih,.  Millar 
and  l.,,ek  ( 'ompai.v  of  l'i,:l.,d.Ipl,i  t,  Pa.,  t  he  ,auplnve>  i,,iii  m 


m 


m 


i) 


I  !• 


242 


'I'llH    iir.MAX    l'.v<T()K'    IN-    IXDrsTKV 


!."  ofTMsu.nal  .■cM.n.MMify  singing  l,.,l  l.y  ,h,  shop  orrhostra  ^ 
•     1  J,     oi     n    „,.,n,,„.,s   in    ..n.  ...nnpany  gav.   this    kin,l 


I'l-ii'Icntiil   I, if,.   [ 


"-niancc  f(>ini)any   nnnn.jay  c.inccrts  arc 


f^'v..nWunr,!,a.iw,.:„iH.,-'     R.^itals  an.l  .vadings  a,v  held  at 

T  I  <■  \\  oMH.n  s  A^sonatH.n  ol- Park.  ]  )avis  an.l  ( -un.panv  giv:.s 
;-';''--.nl..win.au,.,.k.hnin,,i,,,n.,onhonr.  So.n,- <,f 
J''«   l-><l.lM„„fn.,,,„ti-,vpr,.<..n,..,|.     (•.,n..,a-tspn.,Icm- 

n.n;,^l.n,,,.:Hhngsan.ll..,.,nn.sa,v.,,.,.aslonaI!v,iv'n- 
Club  Meetings         FaHnry  .luhs  nUm    i,„M    .hoir    ,ncvf. 

onpany,,     n.vt.n,    amiia,.-!    ui,i,    .!,.   Ohi.,    F...l,,a,ion 

M\  onun  <  (  h,l..  unvts  aft.T  hn.rh  onn.  ,.v..,v  hvo  u-..,.k.s 

'•-••l..h'.<  Hln-p,on,ot.sonal,il„yan.linl,.r<.f  in  lit-rarv 

•'-     nnM,.al    ,naM,...'     Th.   ...npanv  giv,.    „,..   „,,„,„„t 

a.      X    ahourtn,   Ih,.  ,n,.,.,n,gs.-     Th,.  MV.unrn's  (  Vntnry 

;;••     :;''-N'";'-"'-hK,..iM,aC..n.panyn,....,sa.noo; 

'      ■        '-  'n..n>I...,s  a...,nl,l..  at    12.:5()  t wi...  a  m..nth   for 

i'.'l|  an  hour  on  thru- ..uu  tin.,,  ami  half  on  the  company's 

Educational  Activities.       \oon-tin..  ...I-,  ation,,!  I..,,„ros 

j.n-not  iinut,..lastoM,l,j,.,.,.     Talks  on  h.aith.  plant  proh- 

'■''^''^'^'•••-'''•'-'-'■^''-'•i-ts.n.  given  lasi.:X 

t-.MN,n>,nnvl.,i,|gean<l('|.,thi.aof  I'hila.Mphia    Pa 
'"■M^l'n.;fr,lurat,nna!an,limlu..t.ial,.|ass,.s.     The  fra.^hor-i 

7"'  7'7'''''-'f'--''  <'''-<-'•-.  forn-  an.l  ahout  :«)  n.innt'es  are 
;'••-"■•'••'  -1.'-  w".k.  .wi,...  a  u,.ek,  n.  eith.r  Knglish' 
^--^n  languages.  „,.,,„„„.,;,,  .,;„,„,,  ^^  n,anva^i,Hl 
Hills  Iia\c  l„(ii  nicinlicix  ,,f  ih,.  ,||,|,  n 

T"-'  ;••  '"■■'''.'' '  ''^-  "■  ^ 1'^  <'!■  IV 2.)  „.  ,n  p,.opi!! 

or  :.,  houy  u,,-,.  a. ..,,,..,,  nnnu.es  .nnHnpanvnn,..,  an.l 
loout  ol  the  eniplov's  hmrh  ho...-.'- 


IJKFKESHMFA  r    AXO    I{K('HFATfOX 


243 


Fift 


for  safety 


oi'ii  or  Iwciity  ininuti's  of  tlic  ikkhi  I 


illust rated  willi 


nieetni^s.      F.ecdires  on  safetvdevi 


loiir  are  often  used 


eis  are  s(jinetiiiie: 


iiiovitijipicliircs.     TheW-'stern  Peiinsvlv; 


iiiia 


arranjicd   for  80- 


Division  of  the  National   Safety   Council   arranjrci   tor 
minute  picture  shows  on  "  safety  "  in  .hfferent  shops  in  the 
Pittsburgh  distri.'t.     The  companies  -ive  up  l,",  minutes  an.i 
the  men  !,">  minutes  of  the  hinch  hour.'" 

Industrial  Program  of  the  Y.  M.  C.  A.  -The  noon-hour 
profrram  of  the  In.histrial  Department  of  the  Yountr  Men's 
Christian  Association  should  l)e  mentioned  in  llns  (  omicction. 
K  covers  practically  all  the  activities  ouMined,  under  tlie 
lea(h>rship  of  coll,.u:,>  students  and  recent  graduates.  Arrange- 
ments .are  made  for  religious  and  educational  talks  as  wu-ll 
us  forentertainmetits,  community  singing,  and  athletic  sports. 
A  "Sho])  Connniltee"  of  the  nie'i  them.selves  is  formed  to 
eoriduct   the   meetings. 

Lectures  on  sanitation,  hygi,'ne,  fust-aid,  and  se\  educa- 
tion are  given  un<ler  th,.  supervision  ,,f  the  phv-i.'al  director 
or  a  physici.an.  Pamphlets  ;,i:d  lists  of  reading  matter 
connected  with  tli(>  sul.je.'t  are  distril.uted  after  the  talk. 
Accident  pn'vention  t.ilks  hav  a  promm.'nt  i)lace  in  the 
program  In  one  town  it  is  claimed  that  the  .saving  in 
accident  insurance  premiums  elfected  l,y  exhibits,  lectures 
:ad  demonstration  w.as  almost  enough  to  cover  the  entire 
budget  of  tli(   industrial  branch  of  the  local  '\'.  M.  (".  A. 

In  the  Middle  W.'st  "  Shop  ( 'h.aut.iu.iu.as  "  hav.'  been  popu- 
lar. These  consist  of  brief  programs  of  niu^ic,  reading,  and 
<hspl;iys  of  f.alent  recruit.d  from  the  raiik.s  of  the  workers. 
Kniert.ainmenis  are  held  d.uly  h.r  a  week  in  on.'  simp  an.i 
"""  '■''l"'.ite.l  for  the  men  of  ,a  diUVrent  fa.'tory.  In  som.' 
coMunumli.'s,  shop  Hiigs,  orgnniz.'d  un.ler  ,a  .[ualiii.'d  lea.ler, 
""••■ling  w.'.'kly  ,it  th.'  noon  li-.m-.  have  had  l.ug.'  att.'iid- 
iin«v.7  On  ;i  Mii.all.'r  s.'.ale.  th.'  No.mg  \Vo!i,,m*s  Chri.s- 
tian  A.sso.  i,,tion  is  condu.ting  facl.)rv  inceling-.  along  .sinular 
lines. 


>m> 


m 


:>■:>     'i 


Hi 


.  i 


i 


244 


THE   HUMAN   FACTOR   IX    IXDUSTKY 
Recrkatio.v  uvnisv.  X(.\-\vortKi\(;  Hours 


In  many  .vsp.vts  th..  in.hstry  is  .n  a.ivantagoous  unit 
for  the  orfra.uzati.m  „f  ncvatinnal  a.^tivitics.  It  means 
tl.at  play  will,  a  group  c.f  in.IJvi.Iuals  an<l  families  of  fairlv 
snnilar  earnrng  ..apacides  au<i  .„  a  (rrtain  extent  of  similar 
interests  is  possible.  Sueh  activities  ean  be  easily  organize.l 
because  the  m.livi.luals  see  racli  other  daily.  Frien.lships 
ansH.o;  from  work  are  eapitalize.I  and  ,;,ntinued.  The 
eneourauement  of  organized  recreation  is  thus  a  part  of 
the  emphjyer's  program  to  deyelup  a  social  '  Test  in  the 
plant. 


Recreatfov  F.\(imtie.s 

Club  Rooms  and  Club  Houses.  ~  (iub  rooms  and  club 
houses  are  lre.iu..ntly   provid,.l   by  present-lav   employers 
lor  the  use  of  (^mpl.nvs  during  their  leisure  houVs.     Imleed 
137  out  of  431  inyc-stigate.l  are  reporteu  to  have  the.se  fa.wli- 
tic.        Although  most  of  the.se   140  ch.b  houses  and  club 
rooms  arc  of  rerent   .late,  a  .Iub  hou.se  ar..onuno,lating  .500 
P<'ople,    ec,u.ppe.l    ui,h      "..oM.rrt    h.a:i,''     lodging    r..oms 
H'a.hng  rcHus,  parlors,  („il.>ts  an.l  b.uhr.,.,n,s    was  ore.'te.l 
ni   ISS<   by   W.irn.'r  IJrolluTs  of  Briilg<.p,„-|  m 

There  is  natur.dly  a  wi.l..  nu.ge  in  M...  fa.ali.ies  proyide.l. 
The  club  hous,.  whi.^h  limit>  its  activitie^  U,  (hat  of  th.. 
'>'"nary  ,.lub,  and  whos..  m..m!,ership  for  the  mo.sl  p,.„t 
""•liid..^  Ilu-  ...uploN...,  uill  |„.  di.s.a.ss,.,I  here.  Th,.  eom- 
•""nity  or  seMlouien,  ,yp,.  uHl  be  ,.onsid..re.l  in  anoth..r 
"■''■■'I'*''''  /^"efm.ls  all  gradations  froui  a  plainly  furnished 
ro..n.  t..  th.  elabor.al..  country  .Iub  e<,uippe.l  with  ey.Ty  ...,„- 
vem.n,.,.  an.l  ,.v..n  luxury.  Th,.  n.,.n>b,  ,xhip  f,.,.s  yary  from 
less  than  .sj.OO  .,r  ..v.r,  no  .h„.s  ,,,  .,|!,  ,„  .<;._..-,, )()  ■,  war-  the 
ayerage  b.ang  about   s:un.     A   IVw  ..on.pam  <  r.Mri,.;   the 

n'<''>'b,-rsh,:,  to  th.  .,n,,  mN,  .,,p,,,int,.n.l,.nts.  and  torenu-n  ,.f 
(Ik.  plant,  but  n.  the  maj.uily  ol  ca«es-«0  per  cent  of  those 


I|:|i 


REFRESHMENT   AND    l{EfREATIOX 


245 


on  which  uiformation  is  available  — t  ho  privilcscofhclonjiinK 
to  the  club  is  open  to  all  oniploycs.  Some  elub  houses  arc 
open  for  most  of  the  twenty-four  hours,  others  iveeive 
members  only  at  noon  and  for  a  short  time  in  the  evenings. 
The  latter  group  includes  essentially  the  club  rooms  and 
small  club  houses  located  near  the  factory.  The  country 
club  houses  are  usually  npvn  all  day.  though  some  allow 
members  only  in  the  afternoon  and  ('veiling.''* 

Different  Types  of  Club  Houses.  —  The  club  house  at  the 
Deering  Works  of  the  Internationa!  Harvester  Company 
of  Chicago  cost  S27,00().  Its  e<iuii)meiit  in.'lii.h's  ladies' 
room,  reception  hall,  smoking  room,  pool  room,  bowling 
alley,  gymnasium  outfit,  and  an  as-('mi)ly  room  seating  000 
persons.  A  club  hou.^e  directly  opi)osite  tiie  factnrv  has 
been  built  by  the  Firestone  Tire  and  Rubber  Comi'any 
of  Akron,  Ohio,  employing  11,000  men.  Dining-rooms 
occupy  the  first  and  second  floors.  On  the  third  is  an 
audit(.rium.  In  the  basement  are  bowling  alleys  and  a 
swimming  pool  with  -shower  baths.^^*  One  company  em- 
ploying about  2400  men  has  three  clubs,  on,>  for  .\merican 
om!)loyes.  one  for  the  foreigners,  and  one  for  the  negroes. 
The  first  dub  began  in  a  small  way,  but  is  now  much 
larger  than  (he  others  and  occupies  a  welU'quipped  club 
house.     TIh>  dues  are  2."»  cents  a  niontli.''* 

In  some  of  (lie  mining  comMiimities  the  employers  funn'sh 
club  houses  for  their  American  (>mployes  but  make  no 
provision  for  the  ordinary  hiiutrer,  who  is  ofleu  a  Mexican. 
The  cliil)  dues  are  fniiuently  .S2.".  a  yeai,  n  prohibitive 
amount  for  all  but  the  better  paid  workers.'''  In  contrast  to 
this  is  the  "  iUrreation  Building"  built  by  the  Ilomestake 
Mining  Company  of  I^<ad.  South  Dakota,  in  I'Ul,  at  (he 
cost  of  $2r),(K»0.  !f<  etiuipmeii!  includes  a  t!ua((  r,  library, 
pvmnasiuni.  bowling  ;illeys,  pluntj;e-:,  sh.iwrr  baths,  aiid 
swimmiiiii|)ool.>^.     No  charge  is  made  for  I  li    u^'oftht'  build- 


f; 


LUU 


Ml  I  . 


't«    i'ivlUi'C    oliuVy'    Oa     lO.iu 


24() 


THH    IHTMAX    FACTOR    IX    INDUSTRY 


u';Thv'';;!:^'^'r'''.'''''''^'^'^-     ^^"-- '-'-annoys  are 
onnn        1  ,1       ,  "loiitli,  thr  swiiniiiitit!;  tank  bv 

^      '  "  <-np:nu.s    Huh    hou..   an-<li,rnv„t    from 

u  ,,,,,,       ,,,,,,     Tiu,-  an.  ..ss.„tial!y  adjuncts 

Country  Clubs.-,,,  pn.vidin,  .ountrv  .luhs  for  .„- 
1"M-.  .".nployc.rs  arc  artuatr.l  hy  (lu-  I.^licf  that  healthy 
■•-■-'!••"  "— "s  .ffin-,.„cy.  a.Hl  .hat  .h.  incl  t  y  . 
co..v.nu.nt  <.,„..•  for  ...h  artiviti...  These  c  L^  "w^h 
ofT.r  nuloor  and  outdoor  an.usen.ents,  are  perhap  the 
'""^  ,  "''"""■'■'^'"  ^'^  ^^"  -■••'■ata>n  c.n.e'rprises'  tZ  re 
-.ally  near  enough  to  Ihc-  ei,y  to  be  av'nlahle  a  t7w<^ 
hours  or  <Iurn.,  .veek-<.nds.     The  United   Shoe  M; "h^  !  , 

/''-''•-'>;''  J^'-'-'y.  Mass..  donated  a  country  eluh  ho     eo 
^''7;-  -"I.l.>y..s  u,   r,.l„.  ..„s,iu,  over  .S2S,0()0.     It  is        .ted 

-     -vnte...ext..sive. Idetie, rounds,  eontauun^^:^^^^ 
"  tN    1  .>-i>:dI    dia.non.l,    ^olf  ,o,„.se,    eri.-ket    and    track 
t  H<  ,  and    lar^..  .nound.s    for   «un-elub  and    tr..n-shoot  L 
A.vhUe,.,uraIly,   the  ch,l>  house  is  charnnn..     Zr^Z 

':pp:..;::d"e ;:;;;'' t:r;;;;^ 

uiuisunI      T1,     ,        ,,    '-^'"-^  *•'  ^'"■"  ^''l'"PiiH'nt  is  rather 
"   ">".il.      1  he  nie.nberslup  f.e  {.  two  .lojlars  a  year  ^•'      \n- 

'•''7  ':'>'"l>-'y'scount,ych.b.uhi<.h  can   be  easily   reaelu"] 

y     -u.   o,Mr..ey  fron.  tl.  factory,  lu.  a  n.n,LC^ 

SK    o    halfol,.en,ployesof,,.econ.pany.     The  dues  are 

<"'  '<"ts  ,  ,v,.ek  for  n.en  and  five  for  u-omen.     It    too   is 

snm.unded   by  extensive  .ihle|..   fiel,|<  -  ^'^  ^O'*.  •« 

Success  and  Failures,  -     If  „.,.  ,„„„•„„,  j,,,^,,,.^^ 

'Krsfup  a>id  a.'tiy.tie.  ,(   ea.uiot   be  classed  a.s  a   s„eccssful 
-  -|.r.M'.     .Vhhou.h    ,he   eh,b   hou..   uhi.-h   fu mis  « 

only  iccreatioiia!  .I.yu.iou  n,  an  isolated  n.!M.lnui 


i-'ViXiixiij- 


RKFKHSIIMKXT    AND    l{Kf 'RHATION 


247 


nity  doubt l(>ss  more  strongly  fills  ,i  (lind  need  than  aiiv  oti 
typo,  ii(n'(>ith('l('ss,  hiiildiii-rs  erected  near  lar-^e 


ler 


Alls  have 


flourished    sueeessfully.     There   have    been,    however,    note- 
vvortliy  failures  in  kcH^pinji;   an  interested  nietnbership. 

The  elub  house  of  the    Cnited  Shoe  Machinery  Company 
at  Beverly,  Mass.,  is  a  thrivin,L^  orf^^anization.     There  is  at 
present   an  inereasinjr  interest   taken  in  the  M)cia!  activities 
centered  about  the  club  bui'    inu  located   near  the  factory. 
f)n   the  other  hand,  it   did   not   !)ay   the   Pocasset  Worsted 
Company,  near  Pn  vi.lence.  R.  I.,  to  spend  S-'d.OOO  l)uildinj; 
a  chib  house  in   H)()7.      At   firM    membership  was  free,   bu? 
later  it  was  raised  to  .sj.Od  a  year  in  order  lo  make  ihe  em- 
ployes feel  th(w  were  not  accept  intj;  charily.     The  member- 
ship dwindled  nevertheless  l'.,m  2(10  to  GO  and  th.e  experi- 
nient    was    cotisidered    im>ucces,->ful.     One   reason    for    this, 
the  company  consideir,],  wa<  the  pro.ximity  of  the  industry 
to  Providonc(>.'''     It  i>  difRiailt  to  analyze  in  detail  the  reasons 
for  the  success  of  one  chil)  and  the  f.iilure  of  another,  but  it 
is  obvious  that  a  chib  house  is  a  ful  i!e  expens.'  imh-^s  en'iployes 
express  a  stronj^  desii'c  for  it. 

Auditoriums.  —  Knt(  itairunent-  fiviiuently  oiveri  for  or 
by  the  emi)loy(>s  of  different  plants  have  led  to  the  installa- 
tion of  .auditoriums  either  in  the  factory  building  it^lf  or 
in  the  club  house.  In  somi>  iir^-tances  r.  nis  planned  for 
use  l)y  the  i)ublic,  as  in  dep.artment  stores,  or  one  whose 
prime  puri)o.se  was  for  ^talf  or  sales  conferences,  hav(>  been 
turned  over  (.n  occasiotis  to  employe  for  .aitertainment 
purf)()ses.  On  other  occasions  th(>  e(iuipment  of  the  com- 
munity V.  M.  C.  A.  i.  utili/ed.  Th,.  seating  capaciti.-s 
vary  from  ;{00  t<.  .V,00.''  rurally  tli,av  is  a  stage,  ,,nd  in 
most  cases  seats  .are  mov.able  so  that  the  roon>  may  b(> 
cleared  ,and  \\^vi\  lor  dancing.  Tlie  awMnl.ly  room  in  the 
Curtis  Publishing  buildiim  is  an   umisually  be.autiful  ..ne 

Gymnasiums.       The  growing  re.di/ation  of  the  beiiefi,  lal 
results  derived  fr-oni  nroDer  I'ecreatinn  hi-;  !.•..!  «.•■.  i\:..  ;:._;..!!.. 


1 . , 

S  :     ■ 


248  TIIK    IILMAX    FACTOR    IX    JXDUSTUV 


tio.i  r.t  -vnuiasiuiiis  l.y  a  nmnher  „f  conipuiiH-s.     Fivqtiontly 
tl.r  audit, ,nmn  in  the  plant  or  clul)  lu.uso  has  a  fivnma<iuin 
<^'l"'l"'H'nt.     A  UK-.jonty  of  finns  makes  no  charge  for  the 
use  of  th^'sc  rooms.     ( )n(>   companv    charges  So.OO  a  year 
another  ^\m,  and  one  ?I.nO:  hut   this  seems  to  be  contrary 
to  t}i(>  eustom.     In  a  largo  numl)er  of  eases  instnietors  paid 
hy  the  company  an>  provided.     In  a  few  instances  separate) 
gymnasium  hnildings  have  been   hmlt.     One  companv  om- 
plnymg    many    thousands   of   people   eciuipp,.!    a    coinplote 
gymnasium    for    th.>    use   „f    its   ..fTi.-e  emploves.  including 
squash    and    handl)all    court>   an.l    exeiri.,.    ro,,m       Three 
instructors  are  in  charge  of  dass.s  held  alternatelv  on  oni- 
ph.yos'  and  employers'  thne.      In   spite  of  u  rather  general 
development,    on    th(>   \vhol,.    gymnasiums    are    not    widolv 
used.  -^ 

Swimming  Pools.  -  Swimming  po..ls  when  provided  are 
usually    comircted     with     the    chil.    houses.      Outside    pool.s 
hav..  been  in<tall.-d  in  a  {r^^■  cases,  but  the  privilege  of  using 
them  is  not  hmite.l  solely  to  emploves,  but  extemled  to  the 
community.     Th.-se   pools   aiv   well    patronized.     One   enn- 
cern  wnli  7 1«  employes  claims  that   their  pool  was  used  by 
b'.SO  pe<,p]c  in  a  „,onth.     The  number  r,f  people  „sing  the 
po<I  for  the  entire  season  in  a  plant  cauploying  'iSb',  workers 
was  ;57l:;j^     The  tank  .,f  the  Homestake  Mining  Company 
ispatrom/.edby2(M)()pe(,pl,.amonthout  of  2370  employes  " 
Recreation  Grounds  for  Athletic  Fields.       A  large  mim- 
ber  of  concerns  have  h.asel.all  diamon.ls  and  lennis  cnirts  i„ 
a  lot   ad,H.ining  the  fart.uy.  aii,l  a  few  emploves  have  pro- 
vided  extensive  recreational    parks   at    a  distan.v   fnun    the 
factory,  h,r  tl„.  use  ,,f  their  employes.     The  ( lorham  Manu- 
faclurin-  (  'ompany  ne.ar  Providence  Is  in  a  park  of  30  acres, 
part    of   which    is   used  as  an  athletie   field   for  employes! 
Sears    i;.„l,u,k    Company   of   Chieago,    111.,    have   bjiseball 
grounds,  12  t.nnis  courts  with  ,hessing  rooms,  and  a  field 
for  a  track  nieet.^'     Strawbri.lge  and  Clothier  Company  have 


I 

i 


REFFiESHMEXT   AND    RECREATION  249 

an  ontiro  city  Mock  ivsorvo.l  for  m  oinployos'  athletic 
field.*'  This  iii(lu(h-s  ;i  l,;is(>h:ill  fi(>kl,  running  traciv  and 
tennis  courts.  A  Rochester  hut  ton  company  has  lai.l  out 
an  extensive  area  for  <iilTerent  sports  in  the  park  whicli  sur- 
rounds tlieir  factcjry. 

Summer  Camps  and  Homes.  Camps.  ^  Sunnner  lionies 
and  camps  are  established  hy  firms  in  ,.rder  to  make-  possible 
cheap,  healthful  vacations  for  their  employes.  They  pro- 
vide an  opportunity  to  spend  a  vacati(,n  in  th(>  country 
under  pleasant  surroundings  at  a  low  cost.  A  mimber  of 
camps  are  maintained  by  department  stores.  John  Wana- 
inakerof  Philadelphia,  Pa.,  has  e(iuii)ped  "The  Barracks" 
in  Barnegat  Bay,  X.  ,J.,  with  a  house  for  women  emi)lov(>s 
and  t.-nts  for  th(>  boys.  There  are  five  acres  of  grounds  "for 
.semi-military  drilling,  and  provisions  foi  tc^nnis,  boating  and 
sailing.  Trained  medical  officers  supervise  hygiene  ;ind 
sanitary  conditions.  Attendance  at  this  camp  for  two 
weeks  during  the  summer  is  obligatory  on  the  part  of  ;ill 
boys,  hut  optional  for  women.  Curtis  Publishing  Comp'iny 
runs  Camp  Tekeiiink  as  a  summer  camp  for  its  Curtis 
Junior  Camp,  composed  of  its  younger  employes,  who  may 
spend  the  w.'ck-end  or  a  vacation  tlien>.'-' 

Summer  Homes.  -The  Mutual  Ai,|  Society  of  R.  H. 
:\Iacy  and  Company  of  New  York  has  openetf  a  vacation 
hous<>  with  ;i  matron  in  .•harge,  on  17  .acres  of  ground  in 
Cent r.il  Valley.  New  York.  Board  and  transportation  are 
free.  Every  member  is  entitled  to  a  week's  vacation  th(>ro 
if  he  ,so  d<-.ires  ;in<l  if  he  has  becMi  with  the  concern  a  year. 
The  society  gives  a  bnll  each  ye.ar  to  help  rai--  money  for 
the  h()us(\  Tile  cofiipaiiy  supplies  th(>  deficit.  '•  Hazel- 
hurst,"  the  vacation  home  of  the  Cincinnati  and  Suburban 
Telepho,,,.  t  ompany,  has  all  the  conveniences  of  an  up-to- 
date  hotel  and  i-~  under  the  dirertioii  of  a  matron.  There 
are  4t)  bedrooms,  each  openiim  on  a  slee|)ing  porch.  Every 
leiephono  girl  is  entitled   to  a  week'.s  vacation  in  summer 


I 

mi 

M 

it 

m 
m 


m 


lib 


i 


250  THE   IIUMAX   FACTOR    IX    INDUSTRY 

ami  niir  in  winter,  for  whicii  no  (•li;irp;o  i^  nuulo.-"'  Tho 
("hica-o  H(>ll  Tclcphoiic  (\)rn|)any  li.is  huilt  a  mTcation 
home  at  Wanvnvillc  lor  (.p(-iato(s  uiio  nood  country  air, 
K'ood  food  and  surroundings  on  their  summer  vacation.- 

Vacation   Bureaus.        If   tiiese    resorts    are   planned   pri- 
marily  for   those   employes  who   are   physically   below  par, 
and  who  should  1)0  under  the  care  of  a  phy.sician  during  thoir 
•  acation  there  would  seem  to  be  a  place  for  them  in  industry. 
Otherwise  more  profit  would  be  obtained  from  a  vacation 
spent  away  from  business  asso(iiates  and  surroundings.     For 
this  reason,  eniployei'.s  have  sought  to  pi'ovide  employes  with 
an  information  servic-  to  assist  them  in  making  theii    v-aca- 
iion  i)l;uis,   in  s()mi>  cases  cooperating  with  j)ul)lic     g,    eics 
and  groups  of  employers.     The  Cleveland  Vacation  Bureau 
h<>lped  the  Service  Departmeni   of  the  ("lot', -raft   Shops  to 
find  farmhoihses,  camps   and    places  in   the    cou    try   where 
the  employes  could  spend  their  vacations.^'     Thi    Coopera- 
tive Store  ('onnnitte(>   of  the   Fileiie   Cooperative  As.socia- 
tion  .secures  good  places  for  employes  to  go  for  the  summer 
holidays.-''     This  newer  pl.in  supi)lanted  a  former  summer 
vacation  cottage  because  it  allows  greater  freedom  in  select- 
ing the  kind  of  rec;(>ation  d,.sired  and  because  it  does  not 
savor  of  paternalistic  control. 


Reci{e.\tion'  Activitie.s 

Clubs.  —  Employers'  athletic  as.sociations,  musical,  .social, 
educational  clubs,  each  using  the  plant  for  the  recruiting 
groun.l  <»f  its  membership  an.l  as  the  center  of  its  activities, 
abound  in  \merican  industries.  One  dub  often  engages 
in  a  mimber  of  activities,  and  the  athleti.-  association  fn-- 
qiuntly  manages  not  only  athletics  but  all  social  activities 
as  well. 

Musical  Societies  Bands.  —  Musical  organizations  in 
U:un:Aiy  hiivv  a  u.de  lange.     Many  companies  contribute 


REFRESHMEXT   AND    RECREATION' 


251 


the  instniDiciits  and  iho  uniforms,  employ  leaders,  and  pro- 
vide   the    [)lace  for   Ihe   hand  to   rehearse,   because  a  band 
not  only  develoi)s  esprit  dc  corps  \nit  is  a  valuable   adver- 
tising featui'e.     Some  even  pay  tiie  members  for  time  they 
spend  in  practice,  but  usually  rehearsals  are  held  oulside  of 
busine-^s  hours.     The  Metropolitan  Life  Insurance  Couipany 
Band  iias  over  100  pitres  and  is  the  lar<;est  in  New  York 
City.     The  John  Wanamaker  organization  includcvs  a  girls' 
military  band  of  al)out   40  pieces,   and  a  boys'  drum    and 
bugle  corps  of  about   30  members.     The  function   of  the 
band  is  not  only  to  give  pleasur(>  to  individual  members, 
but  to  play  at  company  ent(>rtainments,  annual  picnics,  and 
outings,  and  to  give  concerts  at  noon  or  outside  working 
hours.     One  company  has  free  monthly  concerts  given  by 
its  band,  attended  i)y  about  3500  people." 

Choral  Societies  and  Glee  Clubs.  —  The  music  is  usually 
furnished  md  the  instrucior  iiired  by  the  comi)aiiy  for  plant 
choral  socii'ti(>s.      Ih  re  again,  memlxM-s  are  fre(iueiitly  paid 
for  the  time  spent  in  practice  '"     Dejiartment  stores  make   a 
special  feature  <      this  sort  -if  club  and  often  hold  annual 
conceits    with    (juite    pretei    ions    jjrograms.     Strawbridge 
and  Clotlier  lay  great  emphasis  on  nuisical  organizations  as 
part  oft!    ir      lavational  program.    Their  choi  us,  in  particu- 
lar, is  widely  kno'  ii.     Its  rehearsals  are  held  for  one  and  one 
half  hours  once  a  week  during  six  or  s(>ven  months  of  the 
year.     The  members  of  Marshall  Field  and  Company  Choral 
Society  who  attend  75  jjcr  cent  of  the  rehearsals  are  given 
an  extra   vacation.     II.   Black   and   Company,  and  Joseph 
and  Feiss  Company  of  Cleveland  have  nmsical  clubs.     J.ihn 
Wanamaker,  and  William   Filene's  Sons  Com|)any.  Boston, 
also  have  choral  clubs.     The  former  p.ays  for  th(>  ser\  ices  of  a 
trained  nuisician      The  chor.al  club  of  the  Filcne  Coiiperative 
Associat'on.  however,  eng.ages  theirown  instructor.    .Ml  ni"m- 

l)ers  are  ch    rged   tim  cents  a   week  to  meet   this  expense.-' 
Tho  r:i,>/.  I  i,.K  ,.f  «!,.,  AT... i:. 


!ii 

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vti  tHiV.e       V- v/iii- 


TIIK    Iir.MAX    FACTOR    iX    INDUSTRY 


paiiy  is  -uppoiMfvl   l)y  a  (liu's-iMyiuji  ass(vi;it(>  inomhorship 
of  non-siimiiiji  cMiploycs. 

Orchestras.  —  The  si/,c  ol  an  oi'licsiia  varies  from  10  to 
100  i.iciiilxrs,  -witl!  an  avcra^.'  of  2'.  io  35  tncnilxas.  One 
(irclicstra  whicli  Ix-gan  with  twelve  i  ihors  •'  U'W  months 
ajid  now  nnnihers  one  hunch'etl.  .  nder  a  coinpoteiit 
(hrector  il  has  held  a  scaies  of  community  concerts  each 
year."  The  oicliestra  of  em[)loyes  of  Gimttel  Brotliers, 
Philadelphia,  liives  ie<>;iilar  hour-aiid-a.-half  weekly  moniinjj 
concert'^.  Th.e  We-^tern  I']lecti-ic  Company  and  the  Metro- 
l)o!itan  Life  Insurance  Company  have  a  mandolin  eluh  as 
well.  The  300  Loys  in  the  Cadet  Battalion  of  the  Wana- 
niaker  stores  ai'e  tauiiht    siniiinji;.-' 

Educational  Clubs.  —  Tiie  formation  of  groups  of  workers 
into  ciults  fur  educational  purpn-es  has  been  oneoura,u;ed  by 
a  numl)er  of  conc(-itis.  with  varyin.ji-  success.  The-  Proi^ress 
Club  of  the  Kohli'i-  Industi'ies  of  New  York  City  i-  a  partic- 
ularly successful  one,  with  its  membership  limited,  howcxer, 
to  e.\ecutiv(>s,  heads  of  <liiT(rent  manufacturing  departments 
and  men  in  ofHc(>  ortianization.  Monthly  meefiiifrs  to  de- 
velop co(")pera.tion  ar(>  held.  The  mini.ature  enixineerinjj; 
society  or<>;aniz<'d  by  the  Creenfield  Tap  and  Die  Corpora- 
tion, modeled  on  tlie  American  Society  of  Mechanical 
Engiiieei's,  is  suggest iv(>.  The  aim  nf  this  club  is  to  develop 
the  emi)loyes  into  a  "  team  of  exi:)(>rts  m  the  design,  develop- 
ment and  the  maiuifacture  of  the  product."  .Vll  male  em- 
ployes are  eligible  f(>i-  membershi])  and  the  club  now  has 
8U  member'--.^-  The  yomiger  engine(-rs  of  the  Westinghouse 
Electric  and  Manufacturing  Company  have  a  club  which 
now  has  7.")0  members.  Fee  for  niemb(M-ship  is  .SI. 00  a 
yeai-  and  SI.OO  nioic  for  the  use  of  its  well-eciuipped  gym- 
nasium." Excursions  are  made  to  the  local  mills  and 
factories  and  a  lecture  course  is  givim  on  electrical  sub- 
jects.-' 

Sonic  of  the  clubs  offer  a  more  general  type  of  education. 


1.1  f? 


REFRESHMENT   AXD   RECREATION 


253 


'I 


Thf  "  Community  Clul)  "  of  R.  H.  M;i(  y  and  Company 
conducts  rc^idar  classes  in  domestic  science,  dancing,  gym- 
nasium and  swimminfi,  and  also  iloes  dramatic  work.^^  The 
men.  .shipff>eof  the  John  Wanamaker'.s  Women's  League, 
wliich  is  oO  cents  a  year,  eiitit'u's  a  member  to  join  any  class 
fro!n  dressmaking  to  physical  culture.  The  "  High  Stand- 
ar'  Club  "  of  the  Lowe  Brothers  Company,  paint  manu- 
facturers, is  a  member  of  the  Ohio  Federation  of  Women's 
Clubs.  Its  aim  is  to  promote  interest  in  literature  and 
musical  matters,  and  it  meets  twice  a  month  at  the  noon  hour. 
The  annual  dues  are  60  cents.  The  program  for  the  year 
includes  lectures  on  "travel,  hygiene,  books,  great  m*^!; 
literature,  and  music."  ='  Among  the  many  interesting 
English  developments  along  these  lines  are  those  of  Lever 
Brothers.  The  Port  Sunlight  Men's  Club  combines  a  social 
club  with  a  scientific  and  literary  society.  The  meetings 
of  th.ese  societies  are  supplemented  by  study,  lectures, 
experiments,  and  stereopticon  views.^^ 

Athletic  Associations.  —  Athletic  associations  are  both  an 
effect  and  a  cause  of  athletics  as  a  recreational  factor  in 
industry.  They  are  exceedingly  common.  The  Athletic 
Association  of  Strawbridge  and  Clothier  has  charge  of  the 
company  athletic  field.  The  annual  dues  of  SLOO  for  men  and 
S-iO  for  women  allow  members  the  use  of  the  field  and 
admit  them  to  all  Association  baseball  games.'"'  The  Ath- 
letic Association  of  the  Metropolitan  Life  Insurance  Com- 
pany of  New  York  City  is  also  conducted  by  its  employes. 
It  was  established  1804,  and  now  has  a  membership  of  lOOO.''* 
Any  employe  of  the  I'nited  Shoe  Machinery  Company  is 
eligible  for  memb(>rsliip  in  tlieir  .Vthletic  Association  on 
payment  of  Sl.OO  a  year.  A  few  people  from  Beverly, 
I^Iass.,  may  also  join.  The  ufhccis  of  the  dub  are  selected 
by  the  members.  The  Macy  Athletic  Club  first  met  at 
the  23d  St.  V.  M.  C.  A.  So  much  interest  in  athletics 
wa:-    arGu;-i.i    at    Tius    iiu-i-Uiis;    iiial    iiie    use    of   a    recrea- 


•  t 


254  THE   HUMAN   FACTOR   IN   INDUSTRY 

tion   ground    was   pUmned    and    a    i)ennancnt    assc -I  ition 
organizod.^" 

Social  Clubs.  —  nc'a.-ionally  when  danrcs  and  .  dn- 

ments  arc  fiivcn  for  or  hy  th,.  workers  of  an  indii.  hey 

are  hold  under  the  auspices  of  a  specially  orfraiiizei.  social 
cluh.  Usually  lowever,  the  athletic  asM)ciation  is  in  charge. 
The  operators  in  the  Chicago  Telephone  C'omp.any  have 
organized  .social  clubs  which  give  danc(-s,  {)i.riics,  and 
various  entertainments  throughout  the  year.  S'xty-five  per 
cent  of  the  employes  comprising  the  "  Thomanco  Clui)" 
of  the  Thomas  Manufacturing  Companv  of  Dayton  joined 
for  .social  purposes.  Th(>  dues  are  25  cents  a  month, 
hut  when  necessary  the  company  aids  the  club  finan- 
cially.'-' 

Social   Gatherings.  -    .\    rec(>nt   investigation  of   239  in- 
dustries showed   that   2'M]   contril)uted    in    .some   d(>gree    to 
entertainments  for  their  employes.     The  .■social  gatlu>rings  are 
of  all  varieties,  and  iiieiude  dances,  tiieatricals,  or  parties  at 
Halloween    or    Christmas    time.      Daiic's    predomin.ate,    as 
they   ar(>   tiie   simplest    form    of   entertainment.      Kmi)loyes 
frecjuently    (.dvc   p.iri    and   share   the   expenses.''*     hi   other 
cases  the  hrm  carrie-  the  major  or  entire  cost.     Brown,  Bige- 
low  and  Company  of  St.  Paul,  Mimi.,  gives  its  (>m|)lov(>s  a 
dance  every  six  weeks  in  the  M.  Paul  Armory,  charging  a 
small   amount    foi    admission,    and   one   evening  everv   two 
weeks  a  d;ince  presided  over   l.y  .a  dancing   teacher    is    held 
in  the  cluh  rooms.-^     II.  ,1.   Heinz  Company  entertains  its 
•  ■mployes  with   vaudeville  .s|„.ws,  Chrisim.a.,  enterlaimnents 
and   dances.      Tlie  Slireddcd   Wheat    Biscuit  Company  gives 
an    atinual    ChriMm:M    eiitertaimnent   and    ruiiri  a  series  of 
dances    in    theii    auditorium.-"' 

Athletic  Baseball.  Alihouuh  a  rreit  v;:ri,>fy  of  athletic 
sport>  h.i\c  lieeii  mtn.duced  into  th-^  ■■eciv;i(innal  .activities 
of  industrial  workers.  '•  the  .rre,-!  ,'.ii,.rieaii  game  "  ,,f  l,,-,-,,'- 
hall   sill!   hold,-^   |)!vei;imen(c   m   the   number  of  firms   who 


REFHESHMKN'T   AXD    inXMtEATION  255 

havo  intro.liinNl  it,  :,ti.l  i„  its  siil)s,.(|u,>tit  popularity.  I», 
many  casc-s  tlir  (•(.!. ipany  piovi.lcs  the  Mi(,iin.|.  Soiiio  cvimi 
fin  fuiduT,  and  citlur  (..,uip  tlic  t.vun  ..r  make  casli  .lonations 
f(.r  tiiis  puipoM..  Lai-ivr  mnrrrns  hav  f.,nric.l  tcanis  in 
clinVivnt  <lcparti,i..nts  and  have  intcrdcpailmcntal  n.ntrsts. 
Some  cmijloycs'  teams  hdonj;  to  city  Ica-ncs.  Wh,.,)  a 
rompany  lias  more  than  one  plant,  (-mploycs  li.avc  formed 
Icaj^ues  amonjr  themselves.  One  eoncein  had  twenty-five 
of  these  teams  in  its  league. '"* 

A  possible  d.uifrer  of  l.iyinjr  too  nmeh  empiiasis  upon 
v/mmnKr  fh(>  eh.impion.ship  is  that  men  will  i,e  .Muployed 
essentially  l.erause  they  are  ;.thlet.>s,  and  ^  disorganization 
of  the  spuit  and  di.scipline  throut;hout  tlu>  phmt  is  likely  to 
result.  -^ 

Other  Sports.  -     Other  sports  —  tennis,  basket  ball,  bowl- 
ing, soccer,  crick(  t,  hockey,   even   football  and  t,Milf  — have 
becai  introduced  by  i!,dustry  with  va.ryii,-  .|,.^r,,vs  of  success. 
The.se    h.ave.    however,    been    p.itionized    ehietly    by    office 
workers.      If  the  facilities  ,are  provided  by  the  eomp.any.  this 
I'  ""'   "•''•<'>^arily  the  .•;,.,..     (I,,,,  dubs  are  fouti.l  in '.a'  few 
mdustrK-s,  usually  in  coiiiiecf  Ion  with  the  country  club.     The 
twelve  t.^miis  courts  furnished  by   the  S(.,ars   Hoebuck  (^.m- 
F)any  ar^r„e  for  the  popul.irily  of  the  .sport  in  that  company 
The  National  Cash  Ke>rister  Company  of  Dav*on  has  bowl- 
1.  I  teams  supporte.l  by  the  .ompany.-'     A  button  eompany 
(.f  Uociiester,  \.  v.,  claims  tli,it  iM.wlin.ir  is  the  most  popular 
sjx.ft  they  h.ive  int rodu.ed.     A  lea-iie  is  forme.l,  and  there 
IS  great  rivalry  b.>tw,-en  th,.  teams.     The  balls  are  furnished 
!'y  a  sporting;  goods  m.niufactmvr.''     The  Wagner  iilectrie 
Manufiicfuring  Comp.any  has  six  b;isket  ball  teams.     Soccer 
also  is  popular  in  tliis  company.      Fo,m-  teams  belong  to  tho 
Municipal  I^^.agiie  of  ,St,  huii.s.''* 

Gymnasium  Classes.  Those  industries  ih,,t  provide 
gymnasiums  or  gymii.isium  cpiipment  .is  a  rule  h.ave  formed 
cliusses  under  the  sup.rvisio-i  of  a  paid  instructor.     Cyiu- 


256 


THE    nUMAX    FACTOK    IX    IXDUSTRY 


nastio  rltisscs  for  woiikmi  aw  coiKliictnl  in  \ho  Home  Office 
of  tlip  Metropolitan  Life  Insurance  Company.  Two  clashes, 
approximately  .")()  each,  are  held  in  the  aftei'nooiis  iictweeil 
4.30  and  (i.OO  o'clock,  and  convctive  S\vedi>!i  exercises 
are  taiifiht.'''  Some  companies  without  trynma^iums  of  tiieir 
own  i)ay  part  of  the  meml)ersliip  fees  for  the  courses  in  ti'.e 
V.  M.  ('.  A.  and  Y.  \V.  (\  A.'"* 

Field  Days  and  Outings.  -  Once  a  year  it  is  customary  in 
many  concerns  t(;  have  eillier  a  field  day  or  paieral  outiii^r 
for  the  (Miiployes  and  tlieii'  families.  Thes(>  Amnia!  Field 
Days  are  usually  hii^  events  and  well  attended.  Theii' 
programs  include  athletic  events,  and  fre(|uenlly  olTer  enter- 
tainments similar  to  those  at  a  county  f.iir.  iafiht  plants, 
iMnployini,r  10,100  workers,  estimated  the  total  attendance 
at  eight  field  d.iys  as  .'i.l.OOO.i'*  (^ne  of  the  most  interest- 
ing is  the  "Sam  S.am  "  day  of  the  CnitiMl  Shoe  Ma- 
chinery ("ompan\.  It  comes  once  a  yeai'  in  .\ugust  and 
present-  a  gr.-at  v.ariety  of  interests.  Races  of  all  kinds, 
games,  exhihits  of  poultry,  veget allies  and  lloweis,  side  shows 
and   mu>ic,   all    form   ;i  p;irf  of  its  program." 

The  armual  outings  are  one  of  tlie  most  jjopular  forms  of 
recreation.  Their  denioci.itic  management  :i!,d  the  slight 
expense  intan'ri'il  by  attendance  are  some  of  tiie  reasons  for 
their  success.  They  can  be  made  m  imporl.mt  f.i.lor  in 
improving  morale.  Some  companies  hold  picnics,  some 
cli.irter  plea,-,ure  boats  and  evni  whole  aiiiiHeinent  parks. 
Transportation  is  usually  furm-ned  free.  I'lt'ijuently  the 
fanuiit  -  of  the  einployes  are  included  ami  ,i  f(  w  comp.ii  i(-s 
•all<iv  tluii-  woikers  to  biint  guests  as  well.  The  numbers, 
then-fore,  attending  the-e  out  iims  are  large.  .\ttendance  at 
one  company  picnic  was  20, (MM);  at  .mot Ik.-  l.'.OOO.  In 
the  latter  c  sr  the  company  provided  t  ranspn  tat  ion  and 
prizes  for  the  games. i-'  In  order  to  s,i\e  expenses  several 
firms  may  gnnip  together  and  have  theii  outing  on  the  same 
duy  and  at  tiio  .same  place.     To  distinguish  the  piaiits  each 


rp:freshmext  axd  kecheation 


257 


ornployo  wears  a  soiivonir  button  and  a  colored  ribbon  bear- 
ing the  coiupany's  nanie.'""' 

Management.  -  Recreation  work  in  an  industry  may  be 
managed  by  tlic  employer,  by  the  employer  and  euiployes 
cooperatively,  or  exclusively  by  the  employes.  In  slightly 
more  than  one  half  the  cases  in  a  survey  of  the  recreation 
in  401  industries,  this  work  was  done  l)y  the  employer  alone."* 
The  railidad  club  houses  are  managed  exclusively  by  the 
companies.  The  activities  of  John  Wanamaker  of  Phila- 
(lell)hia  .are  also  couspicuou;  exaiuples  of  employers  who 
finane(>  and  manag(>  tlieii-  recreational  activity. 

TluM'e  area  large  mmiix'r  of  employers,  on  the  other  hand, 
who  finance  tliese  organizations  but  allow  their  workers 
to  manag(>  them,  for  the  most  part,  themselves.  All  the 
recreational  activities  in  the  rnifed  Shoe  Machinery'  (  om- 
pany  are  ru.i  by  llie  odicers  and  committees  of  the  Athletic 
Association  maile  up  of  employes  who  wish  to  join.  One 
reason  for  the  eminent  success  of  th(>se  undertakings,  in 
the  company's  belief,  is  the  fact  th.at  the  employes  have 
had  ;i  free  hiunl  in  the  \arious  organizations,  although 
there  h;is  Ixm'u  .i  certain  amount  of  coop(>r;ition  between 
the  comp.'iny  .and  the  associatioe.  The  club  house  of 
the  New  York  IMison  ("om'\'iny  is  controlhd  by  the  em- 
ployes, and  in  the  ni.ijoriiy  of  club  houses  of  the  I'tiited 
Steel  ror|)()i,iti(>n  (his  is  :dso  true.  The  International 
llarvc-ster  Coiiip.'iny  follows  tiiis  s;uue  scheme  of  manage- 
ment. 

The  recreatioicd  work  of  William  I'ilene's  Sons  ( 'oinpany 
is  fui  danieiilaily  dit'leienl  fiom  llieotlcr  types,  since  the 
work  is  conducted  ;uh1  linanced  !iy  the  I'ilcne  ('ooperativ(> 
V-isoei.ition,  of  which  eveiy  employe  can  be  ;i  member. 
(  onmiiftees  are  appointed  b\  the  |)resident  to  take  charge 
of  liilTerenl  di\  i^iotis  of  the  wovk.  There  are  an  athletic 
conunittee,  an  eniertainiheiii  comuiittee.  etc.  The  lirui 
has  allotted  -pace  in  the    'mi    tot  the  comlort  .ami  ie(  reatioii 


J 


■^'^ 


258 


THK    HUMAN    FA(  r()l{    1\    IXDIJSTRV 


of  tlioir  ciiipldyos,  fnit  apart  from  tlii^  all  nNToational  artivi- 
tics  ai-('  self-supporting. 

Y.  M.  C.  A.  and  Y.  W  C.  A.  Control  of  Recreation.  — 
Iiulustriai  clul)  houses  are  m  a  varyiii}:;  (ie^;ree  under  the 
control  of  the  V.  M.  nd  V.  \V.  ('.  A.  Some  eoinpanies 
simply  contriliut"  financially  to  the  as'-ociatioii  in  their 
vicinity,  or  [)a.\  half  the  memhership  of  their  workers  who 
wish  to  join.  Others  build  and  ('([uip  the  ehih  1  <e  them- 
selves and  t\n-n  it  over  to  the  Christian  .Vsxxiation  t< 
nianaMie.  Marshall  Field  and  Company  and  Wells  Fargo 
and  C()m()any  pay  one  half  the  memluM-hip  for  all  em- 
ployes wishing  to  join.  The  West  i  iLdiouse  Air  "rake 
Company  of  Wilm.'rding.  I'a.,  l.uilt  and  e(|  ipped  a 
Y.  M.  C.  A.  and  tiuneil  it  over  to  the  as.soeiatitjn  to  ad- 
minister.'-' 

Union  Management  of  Recreation.  —  T  ,. ion  Ithoi  has 
frecjuently  oppoxMl  employers'  recreation  work,  hoiuuig  that 
the  aim  and  tendeney  of  such  work  was  to  shackle  labor 
with  gratitude  and  diminish  the  freedom  of  the  bargaining 
process.  Where  the  union  li,i^  entered  the  udustry  it  has 
often  taken  the  management  of  recreation  info  its  own  hands. 
The  d.ances  ariangi'il  by  the  union  in  S,  Korach  and  Com- 
pany in  (  levelaiid  were  crowded,  while  tho-.e  given  under  the 
auspices  of  the  welfare  department  had  be.'n  imsiiceessful. 
Union  simmier  camps  for  the  Chicago  I'.ell  Telephone" 
Company  coitipeted  ^ucce^-fully  wiiii  the  com|);uiy  camps.  ' 
The  acti\  itic- of  the  Intel  ii.'i!  n.n.d  F.idies' ( '..n  meiit  Workers 
\  nion  ;ilong  tlh-c  Ime-  aic  i<\  inten-t.  '{"heir  progr.am  is 
essentially  :in  educational  one,  but  lia>,  however,  rec  le.al  ional 
feature-^,  it  I-  carried  oi;  in  the  public  schools  m  a  uumb(>r 
of  citie-.  Classes  in  gymn.a-tics  and  moxiny;  piilmes  are 
i'l'I'i'li'd.  (  ticisioiial  mu-ical  nuiiilieis  and  other  enter- 
tainment>  (if  .m  ediicat  inual  char.tcter  ,iic  .added.  Theater 
passes  ha\e  beiai  >ecured  for  a  nuiiibia-  of  luuon  members, 
reducing  the  puce  fi.,:.,  <;|,()((  |,,  ;,,  ],,„    .,_  ^(j  t'cuts.     The 


REFRRSHMKNT    AND    UKCUKXTIO^  2o9 

"..■n.lHrsc,  dus  ,„„.„,  <ak.- j^roat  pri,!..  a.i.i  in.r.vst  in  these 
a<tu,tios.  T„  tlu.  lr,.,Ml„n,  aii.l  i.Hk.pen.lonc,.  which  they 
M  .s  n.,  ,louhf  huKHy  due  the  <neeess  cf  the:,e  under- 
takings."- 

Tendency     of     Modem     Industrial     Recreation.  -  Vn. 

;   ;•;  ''-''v  ;l--e  .  n.ueh  to  he  gained  hy  ,he  introduetion  of 
H    .eatu.nal  featun-s  dunng  tlie  lei.suro  time  „f  the  en.ploye 
The  n>at.on,sh,p  w.thi,,    the  unit    „f  the  industry   .vill   be 
^^treng  hene.l,  and  a  gtvater  interest   in  th,>  u„rk  is  Hkely  to 
'I'^velop,    resuhing    from  a  happier   outI,«,k    on    hfe      The 
'■'"Pioy.-rs  part,  honrver,  is  deenvising  except  in  so  fur  as 
-n..>n.s    tlu>    furnishing   of    facilities    and    the   oeeasiomd 
>s    nudus  of  suggestion.     The  growing   tendency   is   that  of 
allowing  the  workers  to  control  and  dire.i  as  faV  as  possible 
hese  features  and  the  mark,.!  su.-cess  whic'l.  some  industries 
Ime  ach.ev<«d  u,  tlieir  recreational  progran,  has  been  largely 
•'"•'/•>,  tins   fact.     Hather    nuM    than    keeping   them   as 
F'nrely   nuiustr.al    facilities    the    community    is    being   used 
whenever  possible.  6    u^<-u 


ii.i 


II'' 11 


«ll 


iff 


CHAPTER  X 
THE    EMPLOYER   AXD    TEIK    COMMUNITY 

The  Need  for  Industrial  Housing.  —  Tho  prime  interest 
of  the  employer  has  naturally  l)ecn  in  the  workin^r  time  of 
his  employes  —  the  time  within  the  plant.  Managers 
have  considered  the  factors  which  affect  a  man  while  at 
work,  but  have  paid  little  attention  to  the  preservation  of 
his  fitness  duiing  non-workinfi  hours.  It  is  these  hours 
which  ari'  of  greatest  importance  in  determining  the  ef- 
fectiveness of  the  worker.  All  the  conununity  facilities 
surrounding  an  individual  afT(H't  not  only  his  physical  well- 
being  and  consequent  productivity  hut  his  entire  outlook. 
The  house  in  which  he  lives,  ilie  store  al  \^iiich  his  wife 
l)uys  supi)lies,  tiie  schools  which  his  children  attend,  the 
facilities  for  recieation,  all  play  a  jiart  in  the  attitude  of  the 
individual  tow.irds  his  life  and  his  work. 

Th(>  most  important ,  however,  i>  housing,  l)ec;iuse  of  the 
apparent  though  unproved  relation  iietwcen  liou>ing  and 
health.  Poor  housing  conditions  are  factors  in  iiu])airing 
the  iiealth  and  moiale  of  the  woiker,  in  lowering  ethciency, 
in  breeding  di>conlent,  in  retarding  j)ro(lucl  i<in,  and  in  in- 
creasing labor  lurno\-er.  The  relationship  of  hou>ing  .and 
city  development  lo  health  is  indicatecl  liy  ;i  comparison 
of  the  infant  mortality  and  ordmary  tieath  r.ates  of  con- 
gested Liverpool  and  the  sm.all  town  of  belchwoith.' 


iMANr    MiilHAMTV      tllllllWliV     I)k\th 
IKK     |IH«)    IlllUllM  HaO,    II. II    llKXI 


Liv  crp.iiiil 
Ltlcio>  irtli 


1  _'."). n 


is, I 
0.1 


2WJ 


I 


thf:  p:mpl()vki{  and  tfif:  (xjmmuxity     261 

Increasing  Production.  —  Where   hcusitifr   tor  workers  is 
totally  inadequate  the  employer  must  take  an  interest   in  a 

huusmgprojeet,  heeause  of  d(Trease,ii,ro(hiet  ion  and  inability 
to  secure  suffieient  workers.  An  example  of  this  situation 
IS  that  of  three  Conneeticut  towns,  Derby,  Shelton,  and 
Ansonia,  where  in  1917  there  were  no  hou.ses  within  the 
means  of  the  average  skilled  meehanic.  ()n(>  company 
had  to  turn  over  to  out-of-town  machine  shops  work  to  the 
vahie  of  over  S8()(),0()()  owinii  to  the  inability  to  get  me- 
chanu's.  ^  They  could  not  come  because  there  was  no  place 
to  lodge.-  It  has  been  claimed  that  improved  housing  con- 
ditions increas(>d  th.^  .  Ifici,>ncy  of  labor  in  one  town  25  per 
cent  within  a  few  months.'' 

Reducing  Labor  Turnover.  -  That  housing  is  an  impor- 
tant factor  in  the  i^roblem  of  lal)or  turnover  is  t(>stitied  to 
l)y  many  employers  an<i  revealed  by  illuminating  statistics. 
In   191()  one  rubber  company  had  a  labor  turnover  of  187 
per    cent.       The    great     majority     were    singl(>    men    who 
entered    the    rubber   industry    because   of   tlu-   high    wages 
offered.   rent(>d   a  hall   room  and   stood    it  just  as  long  as 
tlK-y    <'ouM     and     then     w<.nt     .■Isewhere.      The    .secretary 
(>!■  this   company  says,    "  They    ha.l    no   place   to   live,    no 
«l<'''<'iit  place  to  stay,  and  w.-   all  know  what    home   means 
well  enough  to  know  that  that  was  the  basic  iva.son  for  the 
turnover."  '     .Viiother  example  is  that   of   a    large   (-astern 
factory  which  in   1917  employed  AO.m)  men  to  maintain  a 
pay    roll    of    KMHK).     Tlu-   m.'n   w..uld  not   stav  because  of 
unsatisfactory   living  conditions."     In   the  city' of  Hucyru.s, 
Ohio,  one  concern  brought  one  hundred  and  fifty  men  into 
the  (  iiy.      In  a  f.w  days  only  thirty  n-niained.    'I'lu  others 
had    left    because    they    rould    .secure    no    homes-       Em- 
ployers almost  universally  agreed  that  the  housing  slu.rtage 
was    an    important    factor    in    the    high    labor    turnover." 
Ihus  the  so-called  "  floater  "  is  in  part  u  product  of  bad 
housuig. 


( , 


Ki 


2b2  THE    HUMAN    FA(^T()H    IX    INDUSTRY 


Securing  the  Best  Type  of  Worker.  Tin'  cificirnt  worker 
will  iio  t(i  ;in(l  rciiiaiii  (iiily  ni  the  lowiis  oiU'iiiiu,'  (Iccciit  lums- 
iiiji  cdiiditions.  When  l.ilior  is  ph'iiliiul  ami  waiics  low  a 
mail  is  loath  tn  iliiow  up  his  j(>l).  lie  will  tdlrratc  had  hoiis- 
iii)i  i'or  the  sake  (if  (Miipldyiiiciil ,  hut  liii:li  waiic- aloiic  arc  not 
sufficient  to  hold  desirable  ciii|)liiyes.  They  demand  suit- 
al)]c  living  coiulitions  for  tliem.-ehcs  ami  foi'  their  families 
as  wi'll. 

Ill  February,  191S,  the  need  foi  hiiili!\-  skilled  mccluinics 
in  Bridge] )oit  was  indicate'!  Ii\  !  he  hitic  iiuiiiher  of  adver- 
tisements in  the  daily  ue\\>papei>  fidiii  iieaily  every  plant 
in  the  town,  while  ihere  weic  luily  ahoiil  iifleen  advertist'- 
inents  daily  of  hou-e-  for  rent.''  Some  eiiii)loyers  stated 
that  they  could  increa.-e  iheii-  ])roduci  inn  from  10  to  20 
per  cent  if  decent  li.iii-ini;-  was  j)rovided  and  labor  turn- 
over was  lluH  reduced.'' 

Preventing  Labor  Disturbances. — That  there  is  also  a 
direct  relalion  beiwceii  labor  unrest  and  b.id  housiiif^  i.s 
illustr.ated  by  tin-  -iu:nificant  f'e't  tliat  "  in  the  last  five 
years  liviim:  comlitinn-  in  ihe  ( 'aliforni.a  l,ab(.r  ("anip<  have 
been  rc\'(ilutiiini/.eil  and  durinij;  tlies"  year-  no  serious 
labor  di-^tiiib.ances  have  t.aken  pl.ace  in  ( 'alihirnia."  While 
neijihbnriiiLi  St;itr<  were  expcrieiiciicj^  labor  disturbances 
broimhl  '  lut  by  iiad  li\  iiiLi  coiidilinns  it  i-;  siLiiiificjnit 
that  i)ut  11,11'  miiiMi-  in-t ance  of  lai)or  trouble  (in  .account  of 
such   unsanitai>'   cdudil  i.iii-   w;i~   icpoitiMl   ii;  ( 'aliforni.a.'^ 

AiKithcr  ex.aiiiple  (if  iiidii-l  ri.al  niMV-t  in  which  liviii^j; 
comlitimi-;  .•i^-uiic  an  i  uixkrt ml  r(M('  is  that  df  the  I.  W.  \V. 
strike-  in  t!ic  .Siitc  >>[  W'a-hiniitoii.  In  Sept.  aibei',  lOiS, 
Robeit  Mrucre  >-t:irl(  d  nil  lii-  iiuf-t  i^^at  ion  of  the  situations. 
He  iii\(-  us  an  account  of  the  demands  of  the  luii liter  workers, 
which  iiii  liidi'(i  ,i!i  I'iiiht-hiiur  ila\.  a  iiiiniiimiiMif  S(i()  a  iiioiidi 


with  1 1 


('!•   liiiaid,  .-iinl    III  ad' 111  lull.  <j.'i<n[  w  In  ilr-oim'  fnod  pre- 


pare! ill  a  cook  house,  witli   -uHicieiil    help  Id  !■  eep  the  same 
in  a  clr.iii  and  -aail  irv  cdi|(liti(,n.  -aiiitaiy  -Iccpinif  (ju.artera, 


I 


I 


THE    EMPLOM-:k    and   TirK    COMMUXITY       263 

sinsir  spring  lu^is  will,  -(•(.,|  ,.|,,ui  l.c.lHi.m  (o  l.p  funiishoH 

l>y  tlio  comi.aiiy  fr .f  charu,.,  a.i.l  ;m  extra  la'ttxlry  room 

with  shower  hath-  coiivciiicut  to  tlic  sh'cpiiiK  (luartors.  In 
the  wf.rds  of  .1.  \V.  Cirard.  h)f:iriia';  ciii.iiici.r  of  the  Na- 
tional Forest  Service,  •'  It  is  the  coiidifions  uti.i(>r  which  they 
work  that  make  the  hiinl)er  jacks  what  tliev  aro."  ^ 

T'liH.w  Horsivc  C'oxditioxs  for  Employes 

Housing  Problem  for  the  Employer  in  a  Large  City  or 
Suburb.  -     The    problems   of    (|,.cent    housinjr   and    its   rr- 
lation   to  secirin-  and  kcopiiifr  aii  efficient   labor  force  .arc 
as  important   to  the  employer  in  the  lar^'e  city  or  in  outly- 
ing (hstricts  within  conimulinii:  distanc.'of  theCity  as  to  the 
<"'•■  in  a   new  or  distant   community,   but    his    methods    of 
faciiifr    tlie    situation    must    ne.cssuily    be    different.     The 
<lifTi(Milties  in  the    buildin^r  market   emphasi/(>  the  problem. 
Heretofore   the  spe.ailative   builder  could   be  counted   upon 
to  supply  the  (i..man.|  f.,r  hou.<es  in  all  but  the  more  romoto 
•■oinmunities    in    nun."  (n    oil    li,.|ds,    but    increa.sed  costs  of 
I'liildinj:-  coupled   with    ihe  demand    for   better  house's  and 
liousiiiii  letiislation   haw  shown  that   this  .s(„nro  done  will 
not  meet  the  neeil. 

Importance  of  Length  of  Working  Day.  ^rhoro  are  cer- 
tain fundanuaital  <lem,an,l>  for  :,  vvorkin^nuan's  .Iwellins; 
low  ivnt,  sanit.ation  .and  proximity  t,,  ,r  facililv  in  reach- 
ing work.  The  employer  may  .as>i-t  hi<  woikers  fo  secure 
th.'se  n,.,.essities  in  Various  \v,,y<.  .\  fundament.al  con- 
sideration m  housiiifi  i-  the  lentith  of  the  workimr  ,lay  \ 
short  workinu  ,|:,y  m.ake-  it  p,,ssible  for  workers  to  live  at 
tireat.r  dNt.an.vs  fr.uu  tiieir  w.ak.  in  the  suburbs  r,r  out- 
lying diMri.t.of  |,,r^^..  ciii,..,  uhile  lonir  hours  make  it 
necessary  to  live  near  .at  hand. 

Transportation      Facilities.    -  .\ir,iimements      th.at       will 
pivveni    the    ov.Tcrowdiimr  of    transportation    facilities  will 


.-rs 


264 


THE    HUMAN    F'ArTOR    IN    INDUSTRY 


also  makf  available  a  \vi(lpr  rosidoner  area  and  allow  a 
groator  selection  of  liviiifj;  quartors.  A  rido  of  an  hour  or 
more  in  a  train  in  which  a  seat  is  obtainable  is  probably 
not  as  tiring  as  a  ride  requiring  not  half  as  long  in  a  crowded 
street  car.  By  closing  at  hours  different  from  the  ones  usual 
in  the  community,  congestion  can  Ix-  reduced.  The  possi- 
bility f)f  doing  thi.s  by  the  cooperation  of  numerous  industries 
was  indicated  by  the  influenza  experience  in  New  York  City. 
All  industries  maintained  hours  of  opening  and  closing 
according  to  classification,  retail,  wholesale,  etc.,  specified 
by  the  Boai'd  of  Health.  The  result  was  decreased  con- 
gestion of  iransportation  facilities.'"  The  Metropolitan 
Life  Insurance  Company  in  its  Home  Office  in  New  York 
makes  it  possible  for  its  employes  to  live  in  the  suburbs 
by  having  its  office  hours  from  9  until  4.30  for  the  majority 
of  employes.  During  the  war  the  United  States  Housing 
Corporation  rearranged  transportation  scliedules  in  order 
to  bring  less  crowded  districts  within  the  reach  of  the  worker. 
In  one  instance  arrangements  were  made  to  iiave  a  train 
run  from  Perth  Aniboy  to  Asbury  Park,  so  that  the  em- 
ployes of  the  copper  Industrie's  of  Perth  Ainboy  might  be 
accoimnodated  in  the  less  congested  town  of  Asbury  Park. 
In  the  Chicago  district  five  trains  were  put  on  and  schedules 
arranged."  Employers  in  large  but  congested  cities  might 
find  it  possible  to  secure  the  cooperation  of  the  transporta- 
tion companies  in  placing  better  facilities  at  the  disposal 
of  the  workers. 

Homes  Registration.  In  order  to  lielp  employes  find 
suitable  housing  it  is  oft»>n  possible  for  emplovers  to  co- 
operate witli  agcnciis  uhicli  keep  nn'ords  of  available  ac- 
cotmiiodations,  such  as  the  Y.  \V.  C.  A.  or  the  National 
Catholic  W;ir  ("nuncil.  Such  a  registrv  cmm  ;d<o  be  readily 
kept  by  the  Service  Oepartment  of  the  industry  itself. 
During  the  war  this  type  of  s(M-vice  was  broadly  developed 
by  thi'  Unitt'd  States  Housing  Corporation.     A  complete  sur- 


THH    EMPLOYER   AXD   THE    COMMUXITY       265 

voy  of  houses  and  rooms  was  made  :,  k1  aftor  invostisation 
they  \xviv  classifi.Hl  by  the  eonvenieiice  of  thcMr  location 
pneo,  cleanliness,  and  sanitation."  A  careful  inspection  of 
dwellings  to  l)e  reconiinendcvl  i,,  women  employes  is  par- 
ticularly necessary.  The  National  Catholic  War  Council 
recommends  the  following  standards  for  boarding  or  room- 
ing hou.ses  for  girls:  recreational  facilities,  at  least  a  parlor 
where  the  girls  can  receive  their  friends:  cleanliness  in 
household  equipment  and  management  ;  if  possible,  laundry 
facilities;  proper  sanitation,  including  ventilation,  heating 
plumbing;  pnper  moral  safeguards;  honest  and  fair  finan- 
cial treatment  on  the  part  of  the  landlady.'^ 

Building  and  Loan  Association.  —  The  great  majority  of 
people  want  to  own  a  home  regardless  of  the  difficulties. 
This  desire  should  be  encouraged,  especially  if  the  family  is 
located  in  a  town  in  which  there  is  opportunitv  for  em- 
ployment   in    numerous  industries.     If    the  wage  earner  is 
able  to  live  on  the  outskirts  of  a  city,  either  because  the 
factory  is  so  located  or  by  reason  of  good  transportation  fa- 
cilities, he  may  be  able  to  find  relatively  cheap  land  on  which 
to  build  a  home.     In  this  case  the  employer  can  be  of  assist- 
a..je  to  employes  by  putting  them  in  touch  with  financial 
agencies,  by  suggesting  the  development  of  building  and 
loan  a.ssociations,or  presenting  their  value.     These  associa- 
tions make  loans  to  members  to  enable  them  to  acquire 
homes.     The  funds  are  collected  from  members  and  loaned 
to  members.     Shares  are  comparatively  high  j.riced,  being 
usually  about  $200,  but  they  are  paid  in  monthly  install- 
ments, usually  about   140,  over  a  period  of  twelve  years 
The  member  is  entitled  lo  a  loan  as  soon  as  his  payments 
have  begun.'s     The  security  is  the  house  upon   which  the 
loan  is  made.'^     The  borrower  is  usually  required  to  own 
his  land  to  start  with,  and  although  he  seems  to  be  tem- 
F)nrarily  paying  high    rent    h(>    i.s   eventually   owner   of   the 
house. '3     These  associations  an-  well  suited  to  the  needs  of 


!   'I 

:  i 

vi 


MICROCOPY    RESOLUTION    TEST    CHART 

ANSI  and  ISO   TEST  CHART  No    2 


1.0 


I.I 


1.25 


|50     "^^ 

1^  Im     111112.2 


IM 


136 


2.0 
1.8 

1.4 

1.6 

^     APPLIED  IN/MGE     Inc 


'k  U609        .■■> 

-  Phon« 


200  TIIK    IILMAN    rACToU    IN    IXDUSTHY 

those  i)f  iiHHlcratc  riioatis,  I)ut  ha'  m  '  had  wu\v  dcvclop- 
tiu'iit  cxcrpt  in  I'cnnsyhaiiia  aim  .\I:!--^a('hiisclt-^.  In  I'.UT 
there  were  7n(l()  lueal  huildinii  and  loan  a-^neiatioiis  with  a 
nieniliei'shi|)  <it'  :vr)(lU,(H)(),  and  the  total  assets  ainoiuued  to 
over  S1,(I(I0.()()(),()I)().'=> 


TIoi'si\(;  Emi'i.oyks  i\  thk  Satki.i.itk  City 

The  indn^try  on  the  edn(  of  tlie  y:ieal  city  i-  not  of  re- 
cent oi'i^dn.  Smith  <  )iiiaha,  foi' e\aiii|i|i',  nn\v  a  pai't  of  tli(> 
city  ot  ()iiiaha.  -]iiMn;;  uj)  around  llie  stock  yai'ds  at  a  rail- 
way jiinetini:  in  Iss:',,  mul  even  now  many  of  the  workers 
in  the  paekinii;  jilant-  li\e  in  ••maha.  'I'hat  the  sul>uil)an 
iuo\'eiiient  i-  inerea-ini:  in  the  >ear(h  for  cheap  laml.  low 
faxes,  and  room  lor  eX|)an-ion  and  lietter  lighted  huildiims, 
i<  >iiown  li\'  iitiure--  ;^aiheird  hy  the  <'(aisu-^  l')UreaU  from 
tliirteiai  "  intlu-i  rial  di-i  rici-."  I)ininii:  a  ten-veai'  period, 
IS'.l'.l  I'JO'J,  t  lie  nnmlicr  of  worker-  in  laruv  latie-  increased 
10. s  per  cent ,  while  in  neif^hhorin^  /.one>  or  "  satellite  cities " 
the  inereax-  wa-  '•7.7.'" 

Transportation.  The  indu-tiy  locaiid  in  the  satelUte 
city  has  similar'  proMciu-  lo  the  one  within  the  citw  !'or 
one  r'eason  or  another  llie  wiilki  r--  do  not  mo\e  to  the 
suliuili.  'i'hry  prefer  the  life  (if  a  meliopdlis  liecan-e 
some  memlier>  ot  the  |'iMiil\  wnrk  "downtown"  or  the 
yoimti;  people  wi-h  to  he  ne.ar  the  ;imu-emriil  c(aitei's. 
'I'iie  city  pin\iile>  community  act  i\  itii'S,  l>ut  I  ran-|iortat  ion 
is  a  seiiou^  pmlik  m. 

Factory  Specials.  Xorwuu.l  .md  <  •.ikh  y  are  ix,imj)les 
of  iw.M  -iiliiii!i~  (if  ('imamriii  In  whrh  f.ictoi'y  m.aiianers 
feiiiid  il  le  Mull  .advaiilap'  loseiaire  hettei-  tr.an-portation 
i.aialit  ie-  for  the  operatives,  most  of  whom  li\ed  in  < 'incin- 
ilatl.  ■'^e\ia  d  m.ili.iL.ia-  milled  in  pre\  .1  iIiiil;  iipdii  the  iiaill- 
tnore  .and  '  Mim  llailmad  In  run  a  f.ictory  •-pi  eial.  This 
tlie\'  W(  re  .ilile  111  di  I    it    the  outlet    (iiil\-   li\-   Liu.ii  ,aii(ee.ii)j;  (o 


THE  i;;\ii'L()VKi{  and  tiik  co.mmuxity     2(')7 

mako  p;o()(l  ;iny  ilcficit  lictwccn  rcc(M|)ts  and  cost  of  pro- 
duction. Aiiany;ciiicnts  wcic  also  made  with  the  street  car 
coini)aMy  to  have  several  empty  cars  waiting;  near  (>ach  factory 
at  ch)sii!i2;  time. 

Varying  Working  Hours.  An  eiii|)loyer  of  very  larK(> 
numiiers  of  workers  may  as-i-t  in  den-easing  coiiireNtion 
in  traveUnu;  hack  and  h'llh  to  work  hy  slop|)in,i,'  woik  in 
ililTererit  (ie[)ai-tmenl>  at  (hll'erent  lime-.  The  rnite(| 
States  IM.ayinii  < ''ird  I'actory  ;it  Norwood  does  thi<  l>y  allow- 
inji;  one  hah'  of  \U  sexcn  hnndre<l  o;irI  employe-  i  )  ^t:^rt  and 
leav(>  work  a  (lUarh'i'  of  an  houi-  earlier  than  the  oiiiei-  half. 
Other  [)lants  allow  their  women  employes  to  leave  earlier 
than  the  men."' 


i 


Hor.siM;  TiiK   I:mi'i.()vi;   Wiiiau;  thr  iNoisTin-  i."^ 
iiii;   DoMiwM    i"\(  roic  in    riii;  ('ommimtv 

Movement  of  Factories  Away  from  Cities.  The  hack- 
to-the-land  movement  has  come  to  mean  more  than  the 
return  of  the  city  <lwell('rs  t.i  auricultunil  pur-<uits.  It 
.now  also  si^nilie>  the  removal  oi  indu-tiiti  pkaiits  from  lariie 
cities,  which  h;i-  taken  pkce  hec.iu-e  of  the  lack  of  property 
for  development,  leui-lalion  prohiiiitin^;  f.actories  in  certain 
city  .areas  ;md  sotnelimes  liec.iiHe  of  the  i-eali/ation  that 
lite  in  a  less  <a-owdril  di<lM.t  m.ikes  ,i  healthier.  hai)i)ier 
workiim  force.  The-e  eon-idrr.it  ion-  and  the  nat  ure  of  some 
iniltistrir-  have  resulte.l  in  two  types  of  ijidustrial  com- 
nmmlie-:  tho-e  in  ,,i  n^ai  a  city  where  the  industry-  is 
the  main  factor,  ;ind  llm-i  loc.itefl  ;it  a  distance  from 
eilucational.  ictacal  ioicil  ,i!,d  -lioppinfr  f,i,i!itie-  and  de- 
veloping, .iround   a   -iimic   indu-l  r\ .  ' 

Available  Capital  for  Housing  Controlled  by  Industry.  — 
''he  t\pe  ot  iihlustri.al  hou-iim  entered  Ujx.n  hecau-e  liii^ 
industry  could  fmiii-h  the  only  avail  il.le  capital  i-  e\empli- 
lied    hy  .\kion,  Ohio  "     In    I'ipi    the   pooulitmti  of    Akron 


268 


THE   HUMAN   FACTOR   IN    INDUSTRY 


was  60,000  and  in  1917  it  was  160,000.  The  manufacturers, 
realizing  the  seriousness  of  the  housing  situation,  were 
compelled  to  enter  the  real  estate  business.  The  Good- 
year Tire  and  Ilubher  Company,  the  Firestone  Tire  and 
Rubber  Company,  and  the  Miller  Tire  and  Rubber  Com- 
pany have  all  been  compelled  to  develop  housing  to  some 
extent.  Various  other  communities  have  met  the  housing 
shortage  in  a  similar  way.  At  Marcus  Hook,  Pa.,  the 
American  Viscose  Company  has  developetl  ati  American 
Garden  Suburb  with  261  houses.  In  Philadelphia  there 
luive  been  two  small  but  important  developments.  Youngs- 
town  also  liMs  similarl,.  felt  the  liousing  shortage.  One  of 
the  most  important  developments  there  is  that  of  the 
Youngstown  .'^lieet  and  Tube  Com[)any.  Bridgeport  is 
still  another  city  in  wliii-h  the  manufacturers  of  the  city  had 
to  take  a  hand  in  the  housing  prol>lem.'''  In  such  instances 
recreational  and  buying  facilities  do  not  enter.  The  com- 
nuuiity  can  usually  be  rcliecl  upon  to  supply  them. 

Living  conditions  and  the  leisure  hours  of  employes  are 
of  serious  concern  to  ;i  remote  industry.  The  great  aggre- 
gations of  Workers  brought  together  by  the  nnishroom 
industries  of  war  have  indicated  the  i)robl(>ni  and  accelerated 
inilustrial  housing.  The  nioveuicnt,  however,  dates  from 
the  !)egiiming  of  the  factory  sysleni.  and  elTorts  to  provide 
adeiiu.ate  f:icilili(-s  have  been  made  siiK'c  that  time.  The 
colonial  mannf.icturer  who  esta!>li<hed  his  mill  wlicrc  water 
power  wa^  available  u<u:dly  found  undeveloped  country 
and  w;i<  foiced  to  |)ro\ide  acconiinodat  ioii  foi'  his  eniplovcs. 
(hie  piojcct  cotuiecteil  with  a  cotlon  mill  in  Wilniington, 
Delaware,  d.ales  lt,ick  lo  ISIU.and  in  theco;il  regions  there 
are  hoii>("<  d.iting  iVoni  isKC'  This  nee(|  i-  e\  ident  in  the 
milling  indiistiy,  where  •^ll,•|ck^  oi-  lunik  honse>  .ire  ;ilways 
providi-d.  ]>iii  e\eii  ill  llie^e  llidll-'l  rie>.  which  IIIUI  from 
their  n.ituri'  lie  olher  th.in  perinaneiit ,  the  ;idv;intage  of 
decent    liousing    i>,    assuming    nicreasing    importance.     The 


li 


THE    EMPLOYE!?    AND    THE    COMMUNITY       269 

Colorado  Fuel  and  Iron  Company,  which  opcralos  a  large 
numl)er  of  mines  in  four""  Western  States,  has  acted  on  the 
hypothesis  that  a  steel-works  district  and  even  a  coal-min- 
ing camp  may  lie  a  mod(>l  community.  Neat  and  com- 
fortable dwellings  have  been  substituted  for  the  proverbial 
scjualid  and  unsanitary  miner.  '  shacks.  The  result  is  that 
numerous  camps  of  the  company  are  more  attractive  and 
healthy  than  towns  of  ('(jual  size.-'  T\w  various  .■subsid- 
iaries of  the  United  States  Steel  Corporation  have  also 
foimded  isolated  industrial  towns.  The  rnite(i  States 
Coal  and  Coke  Company  at  Lynch,  Kentucky,  has  begun 
the  construction  of  comfortable,  sanitary  liou,<e>  for  its  2()()() 
employes  and  their  families.  Other  similar  housing  de- 
velopments by  this  same  company  are  tho.se  ;it  Wilson 
Station,  Pennsy'vania,  for  the  By-Product  Coke  Plant  and 
at  South  Donora  for  the  American  Steel  and  Wire  Com- 
pany.== 

Desirable  Ownership  Policy  in  Industrial  Housing.  — 
The  difficulties  thai  confront  mdustry  in  undeitaking  a 
housing  development  arc  numerous.  In  sivaning  an  a<l(>- 
Cjuate  although  reasonable  return  on  the  investment  great 
care  must  be  t;dven  that  teiiants  riM'cive  pro|)er  protection. 
The  line  between  ;i  policy  that  unduly  interferes  with  the  liv(>s 
of  employes  ami  one  that  adeiiuately  protects  the  jjiop- 
erty  is  hard  to  draw  iti  any  instance.  It  is  foi  this  reason 
that  empIoycTs  have  lu^sitated  to  enter  I'jc  field  of  hoiising 
for  workers.  They  have  ordinarily  sought  to  stinedate 
others  to  undertake  the  resfxaisibility.  But  at  times  when 
this  mode  of  invest metil  brings  small  returns,  and  in  new 
cotmnunities  where  the  speculative  !)uilders'  desire  for  the 
greatest  i)rofit  will  injure  the  efu|)loyes.  Ilie  eiaployer  is  forced 
to  a.ssuine  the  respon>^itiility. 

Paternalistic  Pohcy  Inadvisable.  Perhaps  the  lirst 
great  housing  venture  was  that  of  the  Pullmiin  Company, 
ilercthe  employes  were  given,  outright,  a  model  town.    The 


H 


270  TIIK    III -MAX    FACTOR    IN    INDUSTRY 

prcsiilcnl  ol'  the  I'ulliiuiii  ("oiniKiny  Imilt  and  in  a  Rrcat 
nioasurc  rc'sulalrd  tiif  entire  town.  IJinployes  were  rarely 
consulted  as  to  tlieii'  wislii's  or  tlieii-  needs.  The  community 
wascoiKhK'ted  for.  not  hy  them.  The  ultimate  aim  was  a 
payment  to  the  company  of  at  U-ast  1  i)er  cent  on  tlie  money 
invested,  so  that  there  eould  lie  no  adaptation  of  rent  to 
waiies.  Troulih'  resiihed  fi'om  a  situation  involving:  fixed 
rents  and  sh'diiii;  wn,ii,.  scales,  both  controlled  hy  the  com- 
I)any  In  is'.M,  when  waiK^s  weic  icdnccd  22  \)cr  cent  ami 
scliednles  of  woikinti  time  reduced,  while  ivnts  remained  the 
same,  the  men  .-inick.  Asa  result  nf  the  strike  tlie  company 
disposed  Ol  its  houses,  and  to-day  the  peojjle  of  Pullman 
provide  for  I  heir  own  needs."' 

Laissez-Faire  Policy. -The  other  extreme,  the  "do  as 
little  as  i)ovvji,l,.  "  i„,|i,.y,  is  typihed  hy  the  development 
of  (laiy.  Tlie  ciMiipany  in  this  iiist.ance  moved  imo  a 
pr.actieally  new  ciimmumty,  iiou^ht  enough  Land  for  its  own 
"^•'  ;""'  Ihat  of  its  sulisidiaiy  comp.anies,  hut  very  little 
nioiv.  It  iix|.,l  a  >mall  tract  for  Ikmi^cs  for  its  workmen,  hut 
the  nmnher  w.as  small  as  compared  to  the  demands.  Thus 
s])e(ail;ili\-e  land  aueiits  reaped  the  excess  value,  amounting 
to  .SMO.OdO.OdO  in  ten  years  after  its  h.undiim.  created  hy 
tlie  iariic  pojjulalion  .atlracti'd  hy  the  M;ivat  manuf.acdu'in^ 
industries.-'  [had  llie  steel  company  hou-ht  all  the  l.uid  in 
(I.iry.it  mi^iht  have  consc-rved  the  value  ha-  ilself  and  for  the 
inh.ahitants  of  the  town. 

Emphasis  on  Civic  Independence.  .\  unddle  courM- 
is  |)ovvil,I,..  1,1  ,,!„,  in-taiice  ;i  model  minini,^  town  <.f  i'l  im- 
sy!\-iiH  I  was  ei'ected  hv  I  lie  employirm  company,  ;ind  aiioiil  a 
.^■''•"'  '"■  '\^"  'a<ei-  w;is  turned  ov'er  to  t he  connmun'ly ,  .after 
""•  i'ih,il.il;ml>  had  voted  f,,r  its  iiicorpor;iti(.n."  An 
l-.ii;ih>li  example  of  this  frce(!oin  within  an  industrial  \  ill;me 
is  that  of  Cidlniiy  !5rns.  Ijd.,wiiicli  moved  its  pl.uil  from 
Hirminuham  to  lioiiriix  ille.  JAvrythinu;  except  some  edu- 
cational Work  is  self-Koverned,  volunt.ii  v.  and  I'.alls  for  smnn 


THE    EMFLOYEU   AND    THE    COMMUNITY       271 


pnyiiietit  on  the  part  of  tlu'  (Miiployed.-'  Tlir  (.'oanectii'iit 
Mills  ('oinpany  of  Daiiiclsoii,  ('oiiinTlicut,  .slates  that  thoro 
is  no  chaiity  oi'  palri'iialism  about  tlicif  housing-  scheme. 
The  coinpany  huilds  houses  and  ,i>;ets  10  per  cent  return  on 
the  investnH>iit.--'  The  Kaul  Luuiln'i'  Conipany  also  lays 
emphasis  upon  the  fact  that  the  woi-kman  <icts  nothing  fur 
which  he  does  not  pay,  thus  eliuiinating  the  element  of 
paternalism.^  It  is  ajjparent  from  these  examples  that 
furni.shing  homes  for  woikeis  iir.olves  not  only  the  pro- 
vision of  comi'oital)le,  convenieii!,  and  cle.in  living  (juarters, 
but  the  as>urance  of  civic  independence  a-  well. 

.\fter  ihc  emi)loyer  has  (htirmined  uj)on  tlie  necessity 
of  housing  his  ei  i)loyes,  t  he  jji'oblem.-  of  linance,  of  planning 
the  town,  the  type  of  houses,  tlie  ivl.ative  cost  and  advan- 
tages of  different  material.-,  the  .-landai'ds  of  sanitation  to  be 
followed,  the  deniand<  of  ihe  (  niployes,  the  relative  value 
of  renting  or  >eHing  the  houses,  and  the  nece.-saiy  restric- 
tions must  be  con-idered. 

Financing  Industrial  Housing.  Indu-trial  housing  may 
he  financed  in  one  of  two  ways, either  as  a  general  overhead 
expense  or  i)y  a  subsidiary  company.  .\  recent  investiga- 
tion ifidicate-  that  most  homing  w  )rk  i-  conducted  as  a 
general  pait  of  the  employei-.-'  i)rincip:d  business.'''  The 
danger  of  this  is  that  it  i>  not  the  primary  business, and  so 
will  be  neglected  and  Iheic  will  lie  no  ictuin  foi'  the  invest- 
ment. If  the  housing  scheme  doe-  not  yield  a  return  on  the 
investment ,  it  becomes  charity,  and  may  easily  develop  into 
paternalism.  I'eciu-e  of  this  danger  we  notice  a  tendency 
to  create  a  -ub-idiaiy  conip.iny  who.-e  t)u-i!!e>s  is  housing. 
'■  Indian  .Mill."'  the  indu-tri;d  \illaiie  of  the  Norton  ( "oin- 
l)any,  Woi'cestcr,  M.is-.,  i-  conducted  by  a  -id)si(liary  com- 
pany,'-' a<  ai'e  al~;()  ;i  number  of  the  !'nited  Slates  Steel 
C'oipor.alion  town-.  An  intere-t  im:  I'X.'imjde  of  thi^methipd 
coupled  with  I  hi'  u-e  of  in-uraui'e  c.apiial  i-  that  of  the  ( !ood- 


272 


THE    HUMAX   FACTOR    IX    IXDUSTRY 


year  Tiro  and  Kiiljhcr  ( 'nnipany.  The  houses  are  completed, 
and  after  estiiiialiiif;-  tlie  actual  cost  of  the  lot  and  build- 
ing erected  thereon  25  jx-r  cent  is  added.  The  sellinji  price 
or  real  estate  value  of  the  house  is  therefore  12")  per  rent 
of  the  actual  cost.  On  this  amount  two  mortgages  are 
placed.  The  first  mortgage  is  taken  l)y  the  Metropolitan 
Lif(>  Insurance  Company  for  one  half  of  tlie  real  estate  value, 
and  tlie  Goodyear  Heights  Realty  Company  assumes  the 
second  mortgage.  The  interest  is  (t  per  cent  im  both  mort- 
gages. When  th(>  di'velopuKMit  was  first  started  the  pur- 
chasers were  asked  to  pay  no  money  down,  simply  move 
into  the  house  and  begin  making  montliiy  payments.  It 
was  later  decided  that  a  small  original  payment  would  make 
the  plan  more  of  a  l)usiness  proposition.  Two  p(>r  cent  is 
the  amount  to  be  paid  down.  M  th(>  end  of  five  years,  if 
the  purchaser  is  still  in  the  employ  of  the  Goodyear  Tire 
ixnd  Rubt)er  Company  and  if  he  has  not  .sold  or  transferred 
the  title  to  his  property,  the  company  will  return  25  per 
cent  to  him  in  the  form  of  a  credit  on  his  account.^«  That 
is,  the  company  sells  the  house  at  actual  cost.  The  follow- 
ing table  gives  the  semi-jnonthly  payments  to  be  made  on 


Table  of  I'avme.nts  Keqdiked  o.\  Properties  at  Values  Given 


Cost 

HlaI.    KtiTATt 
V\LLE 

$l.t)84.00 

!?•-',  tSO.(X) 

2.2S.S.()0 

■J,. S( )().()() 

2,nsL>.()() 

:{,:{,V_'..")() 

2,t)<.»<».(K) 

;<.:i7.'..7.-. 

2,S01.(X) 

;{..")()  i.-T. 

'j.y;()s  (M) 

;?..%!0.(xi 

2,SJ.-).(K) 

;i.v,(;.25 

2.S<»(i.()() 

;{,()j().(X) 

2,99.S.(XJ 

;i.747.5{J 

Seui-Monthlt  Patmbnts  (15  Years) 


I'lHHT  .")   VkaRH 

I  - 


l,\«T  .!  Veahs 


THE    EMPLOYER   AND   THE    COMMUNITY       273 


iifl 


property  whoso  real  estate  values  vary  from  S'ilSO  to  $3750. 
The  2  per  cent  orig;inal  payment  is  not  inchidcd.-" 

Importance  of  Town  Planning.  —  Few  employers  have 
reaUzed  the  importance  ami  eccmomy  of  scientific  plan- 
ning for  a  liousins  development.  Of  21.3  company-housing 
schemes  recently  investigated  only  1.5  per  cent  had  given 
consideration  to  the  technique  of  town  planning.'"'  We 
have  not  profited  by  the  experience  of  England,  whose  garden 
cities  are  well  known.  The  town  planning  f(>atures  came  as  a 
result  of  the  garden  city  movement.  In  1890  tlie  Garden 
City  Association  was  formed  and  in  1903  Letcliw(jrth,  the 
first  garden  suburb,  was  organized.  Large  employers 
have  realized  the  advantages  of  well-plaimed  garden  suburbs 
and  have  l)uil1  such  suburbs,  among  which  are  Port  Sunlight, 
the  home  of  the  Lever  Bros.  Ltd.,  manufacturers  of  soap, 
and  Bournville,  near  Birmingham.'^  .\s  a  result  of  the 
initiative  of  private  enterprise  the  Hous*',  Town  Planning, 
etc.  Act  was  passed  in  1909  which  gives  nninicipalities  power 
to  regulate  housing  developments.-^ 

A  few  employers  in  the  United  States  have  realized  that 
in  order  to  insure  a  healthy,  convenient,  and  beautiful 
city  it  is  necessary  to  plan  carefully  the  relations  between 
dwellings  and  factories,  to  district  the  cities  properly  and  to 
insist  upon  adequate  building  regulations,  means  of  trans- 
portation, and  the  wise  distribution  of  parks  and  facilities 
for  recreation, '■'  .\  town  planner  was  consulted  before  the 
Viscose  Industrial  Village  was  built.  Here  we  find  a  com- 
bination of  row  and  "  twin  "  houj^es  for  single  families, 
boarding  houses  for  unmarried  workers  of  each  sex,  and  in 
additi(m  a  community  store  and  recreation  building.  .'An- 
other ex.'imph'  is  "  Indian  Hill."  The  best  possible  grades 
have  be(>n  s(-ciu'eil  for  m.'iin  streets,  and  only  slightly  steeper 
ones  for  th(>  non-traffic  ones.  The  situation  of  the  com- 
munity center  combines  proper  geographic  location  with 
beauty  of  outlook.     Reservations  have  been  made  for  park 

T 


274  THE    HUMAN    FACTOR    IX    INDUSTRY 

aroas,  and  a  slioiv  drive  rfscrvos  tlic  banks  oi'  the  lake  to 
tlic  city  lor  all  tiinc.-^  OthtT  carefully  jilanncd  industrial 
villaf^cs  arc'"  Faiiticld,  due  of  the  I'liitcd  States  Steel  Cor- 
pnratioii's  steel  towns;  Kaultoii.  ouill  l)y  the  Kaul  Luni])er 
rompany;  and  the  Overlook  Colony,  Claymont,  Delaware, 
developed  liy  the  Ci'iicral  Chetnical  Company." 

Most  industrial  housinji  projects  have  been  developed 
without  attention  Ix  inu'  jiiven  to  propel'  location  of  dwell- 
ings. After  the  site  of  the  factory  has  l)ecn  determined, 
houses  for  the  workers  have  been  ^Tcniped  about  it  without 
regard  for  ade(iua1e  consideration  of  sanitation,  conven- 
i<'nce,  exposure  or  water  supply.  Town  plainiing  experts 
should  be  consulted  by  the  employer  for  methods  of  meet- 
ing the  needs  of  both  [)lant  and  jjopulalion. 

Type  of  House.  There  is  no  standard  type  for  c<jmpany 
houses,  l)ut  tour-,  five-,  and  -ix-room  houses  are  most  preva- 
lent." Then'  is  aNo  a  choice  to  be  m.ade  between  the  dv- 
taehed  house  .and  the  row  oi'  grouj)  dwelliniv.  In  this  coun- 
try there  is  a  general  dislike  for  tin-  group  house  because  it 
has  been  associatul  with  long  rows  of  stereotyped  houses. 
But  the  choice  docs  not  lie  between  dreaiy  monotonous 
group  houses  and  well  lesignd  detached  houses.  In  either 
ease  the  house  may  be  well  designed  and  attractive  or  badly 
constructed  and  u,i;ly. 

A  recent  development  of  the  group  house  is  that  of  Sawyer 
Park,  near  Williat-.isport ,  I'eiuisylvania.  While  it  is  not 
essentially  an  em|)lo\ers'  scheme  it  is  Millieiently  Miiall 
for  the  employer  forced  into  the  hou^ing  business  to  coii- 
sidei'  if  a  JK.tel  for  ceilain  developments.  There  are  thre(> 
types  of  housi's  .  two-family  houses,  .-emi-det ached  ordoubl(>, 
four-family  liou<e--.  am]  six-family  houses.  They  are  at- 
Iraclive  in  deviop.,  picturesque,  and  (lu.nint  .'"■* 

■\"  exaiiijile  of  a  W(  !l-de>iLnied  detaelied  liou>e  develop- 
ment is  I':clipse  i'ark  at  I'.eloit,  Wi^'onsiu,  for  the  employes 
oi    iiie   Fairbanivs  .Mor.se  (  ompaiiy.     Here  one  niids   four-. 


THE    lOMPLOYER   AND    THE    COMMUNITY 


275 


five-,  six-,  seven-,  and  eight-room  houses.  Although  there 
are  five  types  of  houses  there  are  about  forty  different 
designs  or  styles  of  hous(>s.  Monotony  has  been  avoided 
and  at  the  same  tinu>  the  areliiteetural  liarmony  has  I)een 
kept.  In  the  words  of  Lawrenee  Veiller,  "  Tliis  develop- 
ment gives  i)romise  of  being  one  of  tlie  most  artistie,  and 
attractive  thus  far  evolved  in  this  et)untry."  ^" 

The  conditions  uiiieh  ditennine  the  most  desirable  kind 
of  house  are  the  character  of  the  labor,  climatic  conditions, 
and  building  costs.  While  the  Sawyer  plan  and  that  at 
Eclipse  Park  are  among  tlie  best  developments  in  this  coun- 
try, the  houses  are  too  expen.-ive  for  all  but  the  skilled 
worker.  Other  experiments  in  housing  which  provide 
shelter,  sanitation,  ]irovisions  for  family  life  and  a^sth(>tic 
pleasure,  at  lower  cost,  have  been  made.  .\t  Daniilson,  Con- 
necticut, are  some  very  attractive  and  less  ex])<Ti>ive  houses. 
They  h;ive  light  rooms  and  sanitary  conveniences.  Ex- 
teriors vary  in  both  style  and  material,  some  are  shingleil, 
some  are  clapboarded,  and  some  are  stucco. 

Housing  Costs.  -  With  good  judgment  it  is  always 
possiiile  to  build  well-designed  and  attractive  houses  within 
the  purchasing  power  or  renting  aliilily  of  th(>  wage  earner. 
This  is  the  most  important  consideration  in  industrial  hous- 
ing. .\  wage  earner  who  is  apportioning  his  income  properly 
will  not  spiMid  more  than  a  week's  w.ages  for  n  month's  rent. 

A  recent  stuily  of  earnings  in  factories  of  N'l  w  York  State, 
March,  1010,  which  may  be  considered  a>  indicative  of  the 
general  wage  situation,  gives  the  lowest  avi-ratre  yearly 
earnings  as  about  8700,  the  highest  as  about  .'»;1S()()  and  the 
average  as  about  81200."  The  man  earning  Sl2()0  cannot 
affonl  to  ])ay  mor(>  lh;in  S'M){)  amnial  rent,  and  if  the  house 
is  to  yield  ;i  0  jxt  cent  I'eturn  on  th(>  investment  it  must 
not  cii>t  moie  than  about  •'^2!)()0,  and  for  tli<isc  eai'ning  less 
the  co^t  ni:i-t  be  correspondint::lv  lower.  The  t>])e  of  ma- 
tei'ial  wliieii  is  best  fi'om  t  he  slundpoint  of  economy,  health, 


27()  TlIK    HUMAN    FA('T01{    IN    INDUSTRY 

pormancnfv,  and  (hiiahilify  ticponds  upon  local  supply  and 
climatic  conditions. 

Frame  Construction.  —  Frame  construction  is  usually 
found  in  coal-mining  communities.  These  cottages  cost 
about  SIOOO  and  rent  for  about  82  per  room  per  month.^s 
They  usually  lack  adequate  plumbing  and  the  exteriors  are 
monotonous.  Some  etiorts  have  been  made  to  improve  the 
standard  frame  dwelling,  notably  in  Danielson,  Conn.,  a 
development  started  in  1915  by  mill  officials,  where  tlie  cost 
has  been  about  S190U.  In  South  Barre,  Ma.ss.,  the  Barre 
Wool  Combing  Company  has  built  some  frame  houses  cost- 
ing about  SlOoO  p(>r  family  in  1012. 

Brick  Construction.  —  Brick  construction  has  a  com- 
paratively high  initial  l)ut  low  maintenance  co.st.  The  Penn- 
sylvania Coal  and  Coke  Company  built  some  brick  cottages 
before  1017  costing  between  SIOOO  and  SIGOO.  These  dwell- 
ings hav(>  two  rooms  on  each  Hoor,  a  small  kitchen  in  a  rear 
extension,  and  in  some  cases  a  bathroom  has  been  added. 

Hollow  Tile  Construction.  —  In  1913-1914  a  number  of 
hollow-til(>  houses  were  built  for  the  employes  of  the  Lehigh 
Coal  and  Xavigation  Company  at  a  cost  of  construction  of 
about  SHOO  for  a  bungalow  with  no  cellar  or  heat,  about 
S19")0  for  a  fivc^-room  house  with  c(>llar  bath,  and  heat,  and 
about  .S2;}00  for  a  six-room  house  with  the  same  conveniences. 

Concrete  Construction.  —  The  Ludlow  Manufacturing 
Company  used  concrete-block  construction  for  its  em- 
ployes' houses,  with  cost  in  191;?  from  $:^00  to  i^'.VA)  per  room. 
Poured  concret(>  was  used  for  the  40  dwellings  completed 
in  1912  for  employes  of  the  Delaware,  Lackawanna,  and 
Western  Railroad  at  Nanticoke.  The  cost  was  about  $1160 
for  each  dwelling,  which  contained  six  rooms  but  no  bath- 
room. Window  boxes  and  shrubbery  are  u.ed  to  relieve 
the  architectural  monotony. 

Stucco  Construction.  —  Stucco  has  been  used  for  the 
construction  ol  iiouses  by  tlie  Goodyear  Tire  and  Rubber 


THE    EMPLOYER   AND   THE    COMMUNITY       277 

Company.  Tliis  (U'vclopnicnt  was  begun  in  1912.  A 
numbor  of  clil't'crcnt  .styles  of  cottages  have  been  built.  The 
costs  vary  from  -SISOO  to  S2r)U0.'">  Th(>  stucco  houses  at 
Eclipse  Park  built  in  1917  cost  between  S270O  and  $2800 
while  the  houses  in  the  Sawyer  Park  development  of  1917- 
1918,  many  of  which  are  stucco,  sell  for  S29.35-S3335. 
:  Winthrop  A.  Ilamlin  sums  up  the  relativ?  possibilities 
of  the  various  tj-pes  of  ma^   rials  as  follows: 

'Frame  construction  seoiiis  likely  to  decrease  because  of  the 
Renerally  increasing  cost  of  luinhcr.  .  .  .  But  in  many  localities 
wood  renuiins  chea|icr  than  other  buildinpr  materials.  It  will  also 
tend  to  be  used  where  social  chancres  are  occurring  rapidly.  .  .  . 
Brick  is  to  be  reconiinendcd  wlurever  local  conditions  are  such  that 
it  can  bt'  cheaply  secured.  Hollow  tile  is  in  somewhat  the  same 
class,  tlioufj;!!  requiring  further  development  before  its  possibilities 
can  be  fairly  judged.  .  .  .  Concrete,  especially  "poured"  concrete, 
is  of  value  chielly  in  large  scale  housing  undertakings.  .  .  .  The 
progress  of  stucco  depends  especially  on  the  certitude  of  good  work- 
manship in  its  use.^- 


The  Cost  of  Land.  —  Local  conditions  will  always  de- 
termine the  tyjie  of  house  needed.  A  universal  demand  will 
exist  for  economical  building.  That  this  is  coming  to  be 
appreciated  is  illustrated  by  the  advertisement  of  a  build- 
ing company  which  states  that  its  object  is  to  "  deal  in 
economic  housing  as  a  standard  commodity  by  the  manu- 
facture and  (>rection  of  low-cost  dwellings  and  tc^nements.''  ^^ 
But  as  important  as  buikling  costs  is  the  cost  of  land.  Cheap 
land  permits  low  rents;  high  land  means  high  rents.  The 
empk)yer  in  the  new  comnumity  has  the  opportunity  of 
taking  advantage  of  comparatively  cheap  land,  l)ut  he  often 
allows  the  land  speculator  to  gain  control.  This  was  il- 
lustrated  at    Gary,  as  indicated   above. 

Richard  S.  Childs,  Secretary  of  the  Committee  on  In- 
dustrial Towns,  X(>w  York  City,  has  suggested  the  plan  of 
meeting  the  j)roblem  of  increasing  land  values  by  having 


278 


THE    HUMAN    FAC^TOR    IN    INDUSTRY 


the  omployins  company  create  a  Iimit(>(l  dividend  land  com- 
pany which  would  rent,  not  sell,  th(>  hind.  The  income  from 
land  rentals  at  the  rate  of  4  per  cent  on  the  advanced  land 
values  would  he  enou|j;h  to  amortize  the  investment  and 
leave  twice  as  much  money  for  cominunitN  purposes  as  the 
town  would  normally  obtain  from  taxation.  \i  least,  that 
is  the  way  it  tifiiu'es  out  in  (lary  and  Lackawanna.  The 
land  company  could  afford  to  charsic  less  than  the  traffic 
would  hear,  or  preferably  close  to  wliat  piivate  landowners 
would  e.xact,  atid  use  the  revenues  for  s(>rvices  whic  i  would 
rt>duce  tiic  cost  of  liousin^.-^' 

Housing  Standards.  -  The  standards  of  sanitation  for 
company  housinji  schemes  vary,  hut  a  survey  of  53.170 
company  houses  shows  that  IS.ti-lU  or  35  |)er  cent  liave  no 
modern  inside  sani'ary  coii leniences.'''  Such  an  oversi}2;ht 
is  unfortunate.  M;niy  firms,  however,  have  realize<l  the  im- 
portance of  developing  hifih  standards,  and  during  the  war 
the  govenunent  estahhsln  certain  standards  for  indus- 
trial housinji;  projects.  "Stand.ai'd-  Heconunended  for  Per- 
manent Industiial  IloU'-inji  l)evel>ii)nie!it<,"  "  weic  ])uh- 
lished  in  a  v.aluai)le  handhmik  Ity  the  Hiirea\i  of  Industi'ial 
Ilousiufj;  and  Transp<irlation.  In  iiii(  I,  the  standards  for  u 
siniile-fainily,  a  two-family  house,  or  a  sinjile-family  house 
with  rooms  for  not  more  than  three  hoarders  are  as  follows  : 


.Xrrnncjrminl.      Row  or  irrnnf)  Iioiiscs  noriii:iny   not    to  lie  iriore 

than  I  wo  rooins  deep. 

/^/,s(  ///( iit:<.      \n  li\  iim  (|u:irter-  to  lie  in  liasiinciits. 

i'ldsits.     I'Acr.v  hcilroo!ii  tmi'^t  h;i\i' ii  (li-^rt. 

Furniture  .s/jinc.  Loi'alioti  of  hcils  not  to  iiiterl'iTu  with  wiudowa 
or  doors. 

I.nihliini.      I''.|ictricily  |)refiTr(il. 

.\f(ili  nil! <.      I  >i'|iciii|i'?it  upon  loc.il  siippl\. 

\'i  )ililiilin)i .  \\\fr\  rouiii  to  li.'iM'  III  least  one  window  oj>onin(f 
diieetlx   til  tl..'  iiiitir  air. 

UmliiK/.      Provisions  to  he  in;idi'  t'or  lic.itini^  houses. 

I'liiiiiliiiti/.      !?alhtuli,  lavatory,  liilrhiii  sinli,  wa-hlulis,  toilet. 


THE    EMPLOYER    AND   THE    COMMUNITY       279 

Rooms.  For  lii^litT-paid  workers  fivo-room  type  prefer.'ed.  For 
lower-paid  workers  four-room  type  desirahle. 

Lo(t(/rrs.  If  lod(?ers  are  to  be  taken,  additional  single  rooms 
should  he  provide<l. 

Fairfield  Heights  of  the  P'airfield  Steel  Company  conforms 
to  a  hif^h  standard  in  regard  to  heating,  lighting,  plumbing, 
and  space.  Tlie  sizes  of  rooms  and  height  of  ceilings  coii- 
fonn  to  government  standards."- 

.\nother  set  of  interesting  standards  well  worthy  of  con- 
sideration  is  that  suggested  hy  English  women,  the  wives 
of  workmen.  The  following  is  an  outline  of  demands  based 
on  experience.^'' 

1.  A  hath  is  necessary  in  a  .separate  room,  preferably  on  the 
second  lloor,  except  in  riiiniiiy:distri('ts,  wln^ii  the  workman  must  have 
his  bath  immediately  upMn  cntcriri'.;  the  house. 

2.  The  house  sliould  eotitain  three  rooms  on  the  ground  floor, 
parlor,  living  room,  and  kitchen. 

;j.    Hot  water  is  an  essential  c()mfort. 

4.    Three  i)edrooms  are  the  re(|uired  minimum. 

High  Standards  Always  Possible.  — Thtit  high  standards 
maybe  maintained  even  in  comjiany  barnicks  is  illustrated 
by  the  liarracks  of  the  Hercules  Powder  ('om|)any,  Dover, 
X.  ,1.,  wliicli  are  stetun  heated,  electric  lighted,  and  supplii  d 
with  hot  ;iti(i  cold  >linwers."  liuiik  houNesaNo  may  be  sani- 
tary and  agreeable,  as  is  ^hown  by  the  |)nrtal>'c  l)Uid<  houses 
fur  const  rucli(ui  worker^  u-ei|  by  tlie  Pennsylvania  Rail- 
road. The-r  lire  of  uhitc  piiie,  lighted  by  electricity, 
•  Minipped  with  -ereeii--,  ^tatiMii;ir\  w;i>list;mds  and  hot  and 
cold  watif,  ,ind  in  caicps  which  .arc  suHicientIv  Large  and 
wlii'fe  drainag*'  i^  jxi^-ibie,  -Imwi  i   bath<  arc  |)idvidcd.'" 

H(uiviii[r  st.andard-,  in  .additimi  to  miiiiimmi  ti'altli  rc- 
(]uirenient<.  should  cuii-idcr  the  iiabit'^  atui  '-tandaril  of  !i\-- 
ing  ol  the  people  who  will  luaaipy  the  luui<e<.  ( )nc  waiter 
suggests   that    the  ■~ize  of  the   kitchen   in.arks   inversely   the 


280 


THE   HUMAN    FACTOR    IN    INDUSTRY 


social  proRrrss  of  the  worker's  fnmily.  When  tlie  inrome 
is  very  low  the  kitciicn  is  perforce  tlie  family  living  room 
and  should  he  proportionally  ample;  for  the  middle  in- 
come group  there  should  he  a  "  i)est  room  "  in  which  to  le- 
ceive  callers;  higher-income  groups  demand  a  dining  room 
in  addition.^- 

Standards  Varied  for  Different  Classes  of  Labor.  —  Th(^ 
difTicull  iis  connected  with  the  development  of  cheap  houses 
and  th<>  prohli'ins  in  connection  wit  h  i  heir  ui)kee])  have  caused 
company  housing  to  cater  especially  to  higher-paid  workers. 
Altliough  many  companies  supply  houses  to  all  classes  of 
employes,  pn'f(>rence  is  naturally  given  to  the  higher-paid 
workman,  who  is  most  dillicult  to  retain.'-*  There  are. 
of  course,  notable  exceptions.  The  house  development 
at  Wilson  Station,  i'a.,  for  the  Hy-Product  Coke  Plant, 
provides  for  different  classes  of  workers.-'  '{'he  .\nieri;'an 
Rolling  Mill  ("oinpany  at  Middletown,  Ohio,  ]irovides  houses 
for  foreigners."  At  Morgan,  Pa..  provi>ion  is  made  for 
various  ty])es  of  worker>.'"  In  the  \'iscose  Indu'-trial 
Village  one  hnds  houses  of  varying  size  renting  from  .S12 
to  :?17  a  month. 

Single  Worker.  —  It  is  also  imi)ortant  to  provid(>  for  the 
single  men  and  women,  and  in  doing  mi  to  rememher  that 
"  hil)erly  is  worth  consideral'li"  inconvenience."  One  Eng- 
lish firm  h,id  no  applicants  for  a  pro|)osed  ho>tel  because 
of  the  many  rules  regulating  i)er-onal  conduct.''''  On  the 
other  h.and,  the  W;iltliani  W'.iteh  ('onipany,  W.altham, 
Mass.,  successfully  inainl;iin>  a  large  hoarding  hous(  for  its 
women  employes.  Xo  restraint  is  placed  upon  the  ficedom 
and  t.ioveinents  of  the  inni,ite<.  .\  lioardiiiu  hou-e  for  men 
is  provided,  liut  not  maintained  by  Itie  coinpanw  in  whicli 
the  compan\-  jire-cribes  the  r.ate-.  \o  one  i^  re(|uire(i  to 
live  or  i)o:ii<|  ;i(  either  o''  ihe^e  two  hou^e'<  'i'iii  le  i-  free- 
dom   in    e\(IV    li-pecl.        rileir    i\i~tence    lii(le     lowered     the 

prices  for  board  and  room  in  the  entire  conununity.-" 


THE    EMPLOYKR    AND   THE    COMMUNITY       281 


Renting  or  Selling  Homes  for  Workers.  —  Whether 
houses  should  l)e  sold  to  workers  is  df  importance.  There 
is  an  old-fashioned  id(ui  that  the  laborer  should  own  his 
own  honu';  l)ut  that  this  is  no  longer  popular  is  sliown 
by  a  survey  of  '2\-i  coinijany-housing  plans,  out  of  which 
only  3:5  reporte(l  tlie  practice  of  selling  houses  to  their 
employes.'  The  emi)loyer  may  wisli  to  encourage  home 
owning  in  order  to  release  capital  for  tlie  expansion  of 
the  industry,  to  stal)ilize  the  working  force,  and  to  allcnv 
people  to  satisfy  tiieir  desire  for  home  ownership.  This  is 
imi)ractical  wiiere  the  industry  is  a  temporary  one.  In  a 
one-industry  connnunity  also,  home  owning  may  servo 
to  create  ratlier  than  allay  dissatisfaction,  since  it  makes 
the  employe  feel  that  he  has  lost  the  al)ility  to  leave 
his  jol)  at  will  or  to  oppose  the  em[)loy(>r  in  questions  of 
Working  conditions  and  wages.  A  man  does  not  want 
to  own  a  house  i;nless  he  can  get  rid  of  it  if  he  loses  his 
job,  or  if  the  jol)  ceases  to  exist  in  the  comriunity,  or  if 
he  suspects  that  home  owning  is  a  weapon  m  the  hands 
of  the  employer  in  cas(>  (tf  labor  trouble.  For  these 
rea.^ons  we  usually  find  that  when  liouses  are  sold  to 
workers  tlii'  last  is  safegu.arded.  In  (iary  and  Fairfi(^'id, 
provision  i^-  iikhIc  for  liuying  tiack  the  liouse  if  the  em- 
ploye >o  desiics.  No  such  provision  is  made  in  (Iranite 
City,  l)ut  as  no  nitirtgage  has  ever  lieeti  foreclosed  and 
in  several  instances  hou>e>  have  lieeii  taken  back  and  the 
purchase  |)rice  returned,  the  result  has  been  tlie  same.'"  In 
towns  such  as  Akron  I  lie  problem  is  not  serious.  There 
is  a  more  ready  market  in  e:is(>  of  sale  and  other  opportu- 
nities for  emploNinent   in  numerous  iiKhistries. 

General  Housing  Restrictions.  Tlie  iiroblem  of  restric- 
tions is  an  iinporlaiit  one  in  an  indust  rial  as  in  any  other  resi- 
dential de\(lopmeiit.  <  »i,e  ownei'  may  Icive  high  staiKJards 
iiiul  keep  hi<  propert\  in  uood  ((.nditioii  while  his  neighbor 
may    be   slovenly,     'i'he   (utodycir    Hubber   Company    has 


282 


THE    HUMAN'    1-'A(  TOR    1\    INDUSTRY 


introduced    several    restrietioiis    wliicii    have    been    proved 
acceptable,  as  follows  :^" 

1.  Property,  with  tlic  exception  of  specified  are;is,  shall  he  used 
for  private  and  residential  purposes  only.  There  shall  i)e  no  trade 
or  business  inconsistent  witli  the  occui)ation  for  residential  purposes. 
It  is  unlawful  to  use  any  of  tli(>  |)ro[iert\  as  a  durni)in^,'  tjround. 

2.  Xo  residence  shall  lie  iiuilt  on  any  lot  or  lots  costintr  less  than 
tlie  re(iuired  iniiiiniuiii.  'I'his  inininiuin  is  from  :J1S()()  to  $2.j(X), 
according;  to  the  location. 

■i.  The  location,  material  .■uid  desii^ns  are  sulijccl  to  the  ap[)roval 
of  the  (jood.\ear  IIeit,dits  Rt'alty  Company's  landscajje  gardener 
and  architectural  ad\isers. 

1.  No  huildiu!,'  shall  !>;■  erected  on  any  lot  with  its  front  wall 
rearer  the  street  than  1.)  to  '2')  feet,  depending:  ujion  the  location. 

"(.  N'o  jiorch  or  minor  part  ut'  a  house  shall  project  more  than 
5  feet  nearer  ihe  street  than  the  luiildint;  line. 

(i.    Only  one  resi(h'nce  shall  lie  Iiuilt  on  any  lot. 

7.  No  fence  or  solid  obstruction  shall  be  built  nearer  the  front 
than  m  feet. 

S.    A  barn  or  traratre  nnist  be  of  the  same  material  as  tlie  house. 

!•.  Violation  of  ai  .  of  the  restrictions  jjives  the  (ioodyear  Heifjht.s 
I{ealty  Company  the  ritrht  to  enter  the  proi>erty  and  ri'inovo  the 
objectionable  features  at  the  owner's  e.xpense. 


CoMMt.MTY    .VcTIVlTlES 

Where  the  eiiipl(iV(M'  iiiust  assume  responsibility  for  the 
hdusiii^  of  his  eiiipldves  it  may  also  be  his  duty  to  assist 
in  tlie  ])i(i\i-i(in  (if  a  certain  edinmunity  life,  individual 
freeddui  i^  jirecidus  and  should  be  carefully  guarded.  But 
in  isolated  cdinmunities  and  tdwns  where  there  are  no 
aticncics  td  provide  fdr  cdinnumity  ne(ils  the  I'mphiyer  can 
hardly  avoid  hi-  tc-pon-ilulity.  The  nmiic  of  these  activ- 
ities is  wide  ;ind  may  include  cooperative  stores,  health 
work,  gardens,  bdlei  paiks  Mtid  |ilavi:rounils,  clubs,  and 
schools  in  a  lai'ui'city  cihicat  ional  and  rccreal  iotial  aciiv- 
ities  are  pinv  ided  bv  the  conununity  ami  the  cooper.'il  ion 
of  exist  ine   niir-iiiL'   autiicirs  ni;i\    lie  srcurcil  to  t.'d<('  c.'ire  of 


THE    EMPLOYER    AND   THE    COMMUNITY       283 


the  health  work.  Wlien  the  industry  is  remote,  or  a  large 
faetor  in  the  community,  the  employer  may  through  the 
services  he  renflers  the  people  develop  a  sense  of  civic  re- 
sponsiliility. 

Reducing  the  Cost  of  Living  by  the  Cooperative  Store.  — 
Every  employer  is  dirt'ctly  conceiiied  with  the  purchasing 
power  of  the  employes'  wages.  "  The  v:due  of  wages  depends 
not  uptjn  tlie  .imoiUit  of  mcjiuy  in  the  p:iy  envelope,  hut 
upon  what  the  money  will  luiy."  This  has  liccn  n^alized 
by  many  employers  wh(  n  it  has  become  evidini  that  in  spite 
of  wage  increase  em[)Ioyes  were  still  having  difhculties  in 
making  ends  me(>t.  The  Dodge  Manufacturing  Company 
sought  to  solve  the  problem  by  organizing  an  cmploye.s' 
cooperative  club  to  start  a  ''  commissary."  A  survey  of 
the  city  showi'd  that  there  was  an  uimecessary  multiplication 
of  small  stores.  In  joining  the  club  each  member  author- 
izes the  paymaster  to  pay  the  clul)  treasurer  five  dollars, 
and  to  pay  a  similar  amount  each  time  the  member  draws 
goods  amount inii  to  more  than  his  balance  in  the  club 
treasury.  No  deliveries  are  made  and  articles  are  sold  in 
uniform  amounts.  .\ny  profits  go  to  the  Employes'  Bene- 
fit Association,  but  there  is  no  intention  to  make  the  store 
do  more  than  carry  itself.  The  efTect  on  the  conmiunity 
of  this  store  has  been  to  bring  down  the  prices  of  staples 
which  are  handled  by  l)otli  conunissary  and  re,  ular  stores. ^' 

.\nother  attempt  to  reduce  the  cost  of  living  for  employes 
is  that  of  the  Cociper.itivr  Store  of  the  Mftropolitan  Life 
Insurance  Company  of  Xcw  York  City.  The  employes 
rim  the  store,  but  the  r.'ut  ;ind  sakuy  of  two  clerks  are  paid 
by  the  company,  (loods  ai'e  sold  for  cash  only,  and  at  a 
price  which  will  cover  tiie  overhead  costs,  which  are  not 
paid  liy  tlie  company.  The  annual  lousiness  dojie  is  aiiout 
?i2(),()()0,      TliK  store   li.andles  clothing  ;is  well  a^  foodstuffs. 

Company  Store  in  Small  Community.  In  isolated  com- 
nnmitie-   the  company  store  had  e.nly  origin.      In  Englan<l 


284 


THE   HUMAN   FACTOR    IN    INDUSTRY 


the  "  truck  "  system  is  the  term  whicli  denotes  payment 
in  kind  or  othtM'wise  than  in  cash.  Twenty  States  of  the 
United  States  have  passed  laws  whicli  rej:ulate  this  prac- 
tice to  some  ext(Mit.  "Cash  means  freedom."'-  It  per- 
mits the  wajic  earner  to  buy  where  and  what  ho  wants, 
hut  even  with  this  safeguard  a  -toi'c  may  lie  a  dangerous 
weapon  in  the  hands  of  the  emi)loyei'  in  an  isolated  com- 
numity.  In  the  city,  employes  on  strike  may  trade  at  an- 
other store,  Init  this  they  are  unahle  to  do  when  the  com- 
pany's stoie  is  the  only  availahle  source  of  supply.  Very 
little  information  is  availalile  as  to  the  picsejit  status  of 
these  stores.  The  employe  is  ])i'otecte(l  to  sonu>  extcMit  by 
lesi>^l''ition,  but  various  repoits  tell  us  tliat  such  stores  still 
exist  in  modihecl  forms  in  miiiiiiji;  and  steel  towns. 

Thomas  Darlington  n-ports  as  follows  aft(>r  a  visit  to  a 
Colorado  Fuel  and  Iron  Company's'-'  operations: 

In  pvcry  town,  and  especially  in  those  JDcated  at  a  distanee  from 
centers  are  to  he  founil  exeellent  company  stores  \vher(>  almost  all 
the  noeessaries  of  life  ean  be  purehased  at  reasonat)le  rates,  of 
better  quality  and  at  lower  prices  than  could  h(>  j;iven  hy  non- 
cotnpany  stores. 


In  the  isolated  community  W(>  liiid  th(>  greatest  nce(l  for 
true  co()peration.  Company  stores  in  Hus^ia  have  become 
a  part  of  the  Cooperative  Movement  ami  tlu'ir'  exami)le 
mipht  be  followcMl  here.  The  employes  of  one  industry 
living  to^:(^ther  in  a  small  community  ou^lit  to  form  a  suit- 
able firoup  for  co()peratiou.  T1h>  membci's  would  l)e  closely 
bound  tofzi'thcr  Ity  social  as  well  as  busines-  in1ercours(\ 
The  mine  workers  of  Illinois  liavc  orfianized  v.'ry  successful 
truly  coopei'ative  stores.  Her(>  lh(^  union  as  well  as  the 
comniiui  nccupMlion  have  been  the  basis  of  success.  The 
benefits  aii-iiit'.  I'loni  codpci-at  ive  pm('lia>in^  and  di>t  niiul  ion 
which    woulil  hi;ii\c   it    pay    the  cmployei'  to  cncouiaiic  such 

il  li.iw     ir,.   >.(   it  I  il    l,\-    Mr     .!      I'      W'ltlii^se  ;i^   follnws  • 


/\>'ir>t  1 1  I  -. 


THP]    ?]MPLOYER   AXD   THE    COMMUNITY       285 

In  some  industrial  pommiinitii>s  it  lias  hi'en  shown  that  by  co- 
operativo  organization  it  is  possible  to  increasi?  thi!  worker's  wa^f' 
the  equivalent  of  one  dollar  a  (lay.  .  .  (Cooperative  purchasing  and 
distribution  mean  better  j,'oods,  freedom  from  adulterations,  free- 
dom from  short  weitrhts  atiil  savint;  in  the  expense  of  advertisini;. 
It  also  means  better  contentment  anions  the  workers  and  mon^ 
stabilitN'.  .  .  .  The  incentive  to  itiov«>  is  diminished.  The 
incenti\c  to  be(!onie  estai)lishe(l  and  create  a  permanent  home  is 
increased." 

Educational  Value  of   So-called   Cooperative   Stores.  — 

.Mthottgli  ;i  majority  of  corjpcrativc  sttn'cs  in  tlic  I'liitod 
States  liav(>  failed  hccaiisc  of  lack  of  leadci'slnp,  poor  inaiiaKc- 
iiu'iit,  lack  of  l('<i;al  safcmiards  and  iiiifavorahl(>  oiiviron- 
iiKMit,"  there  seems  to  l)e  no  reason  why  the  employes  of 
one  company  should  not  furnish  :i  sufficiently  homogene- 
ous pronp  for  a  successful  co()p(>rative  store,  provi<liiiy;  tlu> 
oth(>r  difficulties  are  overe(>me.  The  employcT  should  he 
ahl(>  to  fiu-nish  lh(>  nmch  needed  advice  in  iH^jrard  to  financial 
matters  and  f^eiu^ral  guitlance.  The  preat  numhei  of  so- 
calleil  ('(xiperative  stores  in  part  financed  hy  the  employinf^ 
company  are  not  truly  "cooperative*,"  htit  they  are  steps 
in  the  riu;ht  direction.  Pending  the  development  of  co- 
operative huyin^;  on  a  larj^e  scale,  as  is  done  in  (Ireat  Brit- 
tun  and  in  continental  countries,  much  can  he  accomplished 
by  attempts  fostered  liy  industrial  estahlisiunents. 

Gardens  for  Employes.  Ttie  problem  of  providing  par- 
ilens  has  been  considered  by  som(>  companies  to  increase 
tile  contentment  of  tlie  workers  ami  to  im|)rov(>  th(>  ap- 
pearani'e  of  the  cotmmmity.  The  ideal  of  a  house  and 
garden  for  e\-ery  family  is  absurd,  b(>caus(>  what  is  play 
for  some  i  drud^'ery  for  others.  In  about  on(>  third  of  2'X\ 
company-liousinj!;  sciiemes  gaideninfi;  was  encouraged  by 
means  of  prizes.''  Thi<  is  d<>in'  most  often  iti  isolated  in- 
dustrial 1nwns,  but    one  example  of  an  indu-trv   in  ;i   large 

town  wliicli  has  laid  e'iM>liasis  upon  garileniiiLi:  to  beautify 
4i ; 1  ...  <i (i,.,..  (..   ....,..•;, I i,..;,.,ia.,   r...-,.. 


m 


286 


THE    HUM  AX    F  ACTOR    IX    IXDUSTRY 


of  rerreation,  is  the  National  Cash  Register  Company  at 
Dayton,  Ohio.  Tlie  Bens'  Clarden  Company  was  incor- 
porated in  lOlO,  with  forty  boys  from  ten  to  fifteen  years 
of  age  as  stoclvliolilcrs,  and  a  capital  stock  of  forty  dollars. 
The  parents  of  these  children  need  not  he  employes  of  the 
company.  A  two-year  course  in  gardening!;  is  given  under 
an  expert  gardcnei'.  The  produce  is  sold  to  tlie  officers' 
luncli  room  and  pi'izes  are  awarde(l  for  the  best  gai'den 
and  the  best  bookkeeping.  This  company  also  olTei's  prizes 
for  the  best  tiow(M'  garden.  .\  few  isohileil  instances  such 
as  this  may  l)e  found,  but  in  general  such  work  is  better  left 
to  one  of  the  various  gardening  associations.^'' 

In  remote  conununities,  and  especiallv  where  foreigners 
are  employed,  one  finds  imicli  encouragement  l)eing  given  to 
gardening.  Piizes  ai'e  often  olTered  for  the  best  garden. 
The  .Vmericaii  Bridge  ( 'ompany  (»ff(M's  twelve  prizes,  one 
•SIO.OO  first  prize,  one  second  prize  of  So.OO,  and  ten  prizes 
of  •'^I.OO  each.  'Vho  foreigners  know  iiow  to  raise  vegetables 
and  flowers.  They  like  it  and  it  helps  to  reduce  the  cost  of 
living.  For  many  years  the  rnited  States  Stetd  Company 
corporation  has  olTered  sjx'cial  inducements  to  its  foreign 
employes  to  utilize^  vacant  ground  for  laising  vegetables, 
and  similar  encouragement  is  often  given  to  the  develop- 
ment of  home  gardens.  The  (juanlity  of  veg(>tables  raised 
is  f.-eciuenlly  ixwoiid  tlie  needs  of  the  connmuiity,  ;i:iil  much 
is  wasted.  The  Oliver  Mining  Conrpany  solved  this  prob- 
lem liy  luiililing  .several  vegetable  cellars  in  its  niining  towns 
in  the  Mimiesot.a  Range.  Individii.d  bins  with  individual 
lockers  wei'e  lounil  to  be  most  sat  isfactorv.'"'- 

Health  Work.  The  help  of  the  employer  in  maintain- 
ing the  -tandard-^  of  a  small  coiniinmity  is  somelimes  neces- 
s.'irv.  The  Ludlow  Manufacf ui'iuL;  Company  built  .an  (ex- 
cellent little  hospital  and  pi'c'-ented  it  to  the  town  of  Ludlow. 
The  compaiiv  meets  all    the   expenses   incident  to  the   care 


THE    EMPLOYER   AND    THE    COMMUXITY       287 

of  the  company.  Aiuithcr  couipaiiy  which  iiiton>st.s  itself 
in  liealth  work  is  the  L'nited  States  I'layinff  Cai'd  Com- 
pany, which  employs  visitinji  nurses  uho  spend  part  of  their 
time  visiting  in  the  houses  of  sick  employes  and  their 
families.'"'  The  Clark  Thread  Company  of  Newark,  New 
Jersey,  employs  a  visiting  nurse  who  is  mainly  an  instructor 
•rivinjr  nursing  care  when  necessary.  Slu^  teaches  cooking, 
infant  care,  the  feedinfi  of  children,  home  mu'sinfi,  fiardeiiinj^ 
and  marketing."  The  Bush  Termiiud  Company  also  r(\il- 
izes  the  advantage  of  extending  health  work  to  the  com- 
munity, so  at  Terminal  City  we  find  a  hospital  and 
dispensary  built  by  the  company."*  The  New  Jer'^ey  Zinc 
Company  at  Palmerton,  New  Jersey,  employs  a  settlement 
worker  who  speaks  foreign  languages  and  who  helps  to  im- 
prove the  housing  conditions.^^ 

An  exampl(>  of  excellent  conunimity  health  work  in 
Southern  mill  towns  is  given  by  Mrs.  Laurie  Jean  Reid, 
Chief  Nurse  ;it  Extra  Cantonment  Zone  No.  14.  Mrs. 
Reid  found  that  one  mamifactming  company  with  five 
cotton  mills  in  C.(>orgia  had  done  no  public  health  work. 
As  the  result  of  her  efforts,  the  company  has  established 
at  each  of  its  villages  a  milk  station  and  a  dispensary  in 
charge  of  a  nurse.  There  is  also  a  day  nursery  in  charge  of  a 
matron,  and  in  one  particularly  isolated  village  the  com- 
pany has  put  up  a  hospital.  In  one  village  a  laundry  is 
being  built  and  a  steiili/er  installed  for  the  vill.age  and  a 
bath  house  with  i)lunge  and  shower.-'" 

The  C(.!oiado  Fuel  and  Iron  Comp.'iny  has  stationed 
experienced  nurses  in  several  of  its  camps.  These  women,  in 
addition  to  their  regular  musing  seivice,go  into  the  houses 
of  the  emi)loyes  and  teach  liygien(\ 

The  health  work  of  the  l'nited  States  Steel  Cor[)oration 
and  its  subsidiaries  includes  a  visiting  nursing  service.  The 
services  of  the  nurse  nre  dlTereil  free  liy  the  company  to  the 
fanuiies   oi    liie   empi(jyes,  i)Ut   are   not   forced   upon   them. 


11 


288 


THE    HUMAN    FACTOR    IX    INDUSTRY 


No  nurso  over  visits  ;i  iiouso  unless  n'qu(\st('(l  to  do  so  hy  a 
imMuher  of  the  family. 

The  Tonnessco  Coal,  Iron,  and  IJailroad  Coinjiahy  has 
added  to  its  health  work  a  dental  clinic  for  the  families  of 
employes.  A  dental  sm-^con  has  been  employed  to  care 
for  the  teeth  of  the  children  in  the  various  schools  main- 
tained hy  the  company.  No  dental  work  is  done  without  a 
written  permission  from  the  parents,  and  it  is  intert'stinn 
to  note  that  during;  one  year  in  not  a  sin<i;le  instance  was 
permission  refused.-- 

At  some  plants  sp(>cial  courses  in  practical  liousekeepinp; 
are  arranged  hy  the  company  for  the  heneiit  of  the  wives 
and  children  of  (Mnployes.--  The  vir^ititig  or  district  nurse 
is  usually  the  teacher  for  these  classes.  Some  companies 
provide  houses  or  sjiecial  rooms  ;uid  efiuipment  for  the 
maintenance  of  this  work.  In  other  instances  visiting 
housekeepers  ai'e  employeil  who  go  into  the  house  and  teach 
cooking  anil  h(Misekeepiiig.  This  kind  of  service  is  partic- 
ularly valuable  where  many  foreigners  are  em[)loved  who  do 
not  know  the  propcM-  way  to  ])rep;u-e  many  kinds  of  cheap 
foods.  It  is  tlie  duty  of  tlie  visiting  housc^keeper  to  assist 
in  reducing  the  cost  of  living  l>y  giving  instinct  ions  in  appe- 
tizing ways  of  cooking  the  cheaiier  aiticles  of  diet.  The 
Consolidated  Coal  Cor])oration  of  X'irginia  (Mujjloys  a  die- 
tetics teacher  who  goes  into  tl>e  houses  of  the  employes. 

Recreation.  —  Provision  for  recreation  ♦akes  the  form  of 
parks,  swimming  pools,  cluh  houses,  or  playgrounds.  At 
Terminal  City  we  find  provisions  for  bowling,  billiards, 
basket  ball,  baseball,  tennis,  and  outdoor  recreation  in  the 
sununer  time.^'*  The  New  Jersey  Zinc  Comi)any  at  Palmer- 
ton  provides  a  kindergarten  at  which  those  women  who 
work  and  who  have  no  one  with  whom  to  leave  their  chil- 
dren can  liring  the  little^  ones  for  the  day's  stay.  Tliere  is 
also  a  neighliuihood  hou^e  which  acts  as  a  chib  for  the 
employes,  but  is  used  by  others  as  well.     It  was  patronized 


THH    f:MPLOYEl{   AND   TUP]   COMMUXITY       289 

dtirinp;  one  year  by  inoro  than  11,000  prown-iips  and  chil- 
dren.''^ The  most  important  coninHniity  work  of  Hershey, 
the  noted  iVnnsylvania  chocolate  tinvn,  is  llershey  Park, 
which  is  open  to  all.  In  this  recreiitional  area  are  included 
a  swimming  pool,  dancing  pavilion,  and  lawns  set  with  ap- 
pliances for  athletic  spoils."'  The  Eastman  Kodak  Com- 
pany also  provides  "  Kodak  Park"  for  the  use  of  all  citi- 
zens of  Roch(>ster.  The  fact  that  the  employes  do  better 
work  when  th(y  know  an  interest  is  beinj;;  taken  in  their 
famili(>s  led  the  Ijidicott  Johnsoji  Company  to  buikl  a  2,000,- 
OOO-gallon  swimming  pool  which  is  r(-served  for  the  use  of 
children  during  the  daytime.'''  The  Ludlow  Manufacturing 
Company  has  built  a  clui)  liouse  in  which  there  are  a  gym- 
nasium, l)owling  alleys,  swimming  pools,  and  reading  room, 
and  near  l)y  is  the  athletic  park  for  outdoor  sports  and  chil- 
dren's recreational  classes.^** 

Out-of-door  recreatior  is  emphasized  in  both  cotton  and 
miningtowns.  At  Sa'  dills,  S|)artaid)urg,  S.  C.,  there  are 
vol! 'v  ball,  tennis,  bask  ball,  and  swimming  for  every  one. 
There  is  also  a  community  buikling  surrounded  by  a  play- 
ground.^ 

The  fact  that  "  vigorous  childhooi'  leads  to  vigorous 
manhood  "  has  led  the  various  subsidiaries  of  the  United 
States  Steel  Cor])oration  to  give  much  attention  to  play- 
grounds. Th'>  hr-t  playground  in  connection  with  the 
Steel  Industry  was  establisherl  in  1010.  In  1914  there  were 
101  playgrounds  at  the  operations  of  the  Steel  Corporation. 
In  most  cases  they  are  owned,  operated,  and  maintained 
liy  one  of  the  sulx'idiary  companies.  In  a  few  cases  they 
have  l)een  turned  over  to  the  local  playground  a.ssociation, 
the  company  still  contributing  to  the  maintenance  These 
jilaygrounds  are  op(>n  to  all  clnld!(  ii  of  the  neighborhood. 
In  the  evenings  the  jjlnygiounds  ai'e  used  for  music,  mov- 
ing piclui'cs,  and  oilier  entertainments  for  the  grown-ujis. 
i'lie  cost  ol  a  pla\  (.'.loiiiMl  is  small  (l)etween  SI1!S  ami  ^120 

V 


a 


290 


THE    HITMAN    FACTOR    IX    INDUSTRY 


are  the  fiRuros  given  by  the  I'lllswortli  ami  Cokeburg  Col- 
lieries for  I9i:})  and  the  results  lai-r(\ichinK.  The  standards 
of  child  life  —  physieal,  mental,  and  moial — are  raised  and 
the  "esults  are  reflected  in  more  iiealthful  livinj;  conditions 
in  the  home.^ 

The  recreational  activities  of  the  Colorado  Fuel  and 
Iron  Company  include  moving  picture  shows,  jjlaygrounds, 
and  other  activities  plamied  witli  the  assistance  of  the 
Y.  M.  C.  A.  secretaries  and  committees  on  recreation  and 
education  created  by  the  industrial  re])resen1ation  i)lan.-i 

In  contrast  to  the  Milowiiig  tales  of  playgrounds  for  the 
children  are  tin  conditions  in  Homestt^ad,  one  of  the  earliest 
steel  towns.  A  recent  article  states  :  "  Little  children  played 
on  the  sidewalk  flush  with  the  four-tracked  railroad,  to  get 
their  last  tire  before  tumbling  on  to  the  family  mattress." 
This  same  writer  says  of  the  works  of  the  National  Tube 
Company  near  Lorain,  Ohio:  "The  street  car  picked  its 
way  through  an  alley  not  wide  enough  for  a  sidewalk,  in 
addition  ...  a  playground  for  the  children  who  darted  in 
and  out.  The  shacks  and  houses,  the  children's  homes, 
lined  the  street  so  close  that  the  steps  were  set  on  the  brick 
paving.  Th(>  backyards  of  cinders  ran  down  to  the  rail- 
road, or  their  outlious(>s  met  outhouses  of  (tther  shacks 
which  faced  the  railroad."  Thus  we  have  two  instances 
of  steel  towns  in  which  the  employing  company  has  not 
assumed  the  responsibility  of  maintaining  a  In^althy  commu- 
nity life,  and  on  tlie  other  hand  the  town  has  failed  because 
the  inhabitants  are  not  possessed  of  a(l(>(iuat(>  resources. ''■"' 

The  club  house  also  takes  an  imjjortant  pait  in  community 
recreation  work  when  its  use  is  not  limited  (o  the  employes 
of  the  company.  The  club  house  of  tlie  Oliver  Iron  Min- 
ing Comi)any  is  open  at  all  limes  to  ineml)ers  and  their 
friends.  The  Boys'  ( "lub  of  the  Lackawaima  Social  Center 
is  an  "  nnim  "  cliii>.  Any  boy  in  the  village  is  welcome. 
The  social  center  of  this  company  also  provides  club  facilities 


THE    EMPLOYER    AND   THE    COMMUNITY       291 

where  employes  and  non-employes  can  sjjend  their  leisure 
hours  profitably.  In  1907  a  cl-ih  hou.-e  was  built  at  Burliam 
by  two  steel  companies,  with  tlie  assistance  of  individual 
subscrii)tions.  This  is  really  a  comnninity  center  and  is 
managed  by  director.-  composed  of  people  from  the  neighbor- 
hood. Another  example  of  a  community  club  house  is  that 
built  by  the  Cleveland  Clit^'s  Iron  ('om])any,  at  the  mining 
town  of  (Jwinn.  The  membership  for  non-employes  is  six 
dollars  a  year,  while  employes  pay  three  dollars'  annual 
dues.  There  is  a  small  membership  fee  of  ten  cents  per 
month  for  boys  of  the  community,  who  have  the  privilege  of 
the  game  and  reading  room  and  swimming  pool  at  certain 
stated  times. ^'^ 

Education.  —  Th(>  employing  company  in  a  corporation- 
owned  town  may  also  have  to  assist  in  educational  activ- 
ities. One  instance  of  this  is  that  of  Hershey,  where 
the  chocolate  factories  are  located.  The  country  schijols 
of  this  district  weie  united  and  placed  on  a  graded  basis. 
Mr.  Hershey  built  and  ecjaippc d  a  school  costing  S20,()00 
in  1914.  The  Hershey  puDlic  library  is  also  available  to 
the  community.^' 

Educational  work  is  emphasized  liy  the  Colorado  Fuel 
and  Iron  Company.  There  are  no  "  company  "  school-, 
but  the  company  cociperates  with  the  school  board  to  secure 
the  best  advantages.  The  property  in  the  vicinity  of  its 
camps  is  usually  owned  by  the  company,  so  it  bears  most  of 
the  (^xpense  of  maintaining  the  schools.  An  interesting  ex- 
periment has  beini  tried  ;,t  the  coal-mining  camp  at  Sopris, 
Colorado.  Tiiere  the  children  are  given  credit  for  instruct- 
ing their  parents  at  home.  Cradually  the  school  system  is 
being  extended  to  include  liigh  scho  \  work.-' 

COXCLUSIOX 

The  fact  that  industrial  efliciency  depends  so  much  upon 
the  healthy,  hap])y  life  of  the  employes  outside  of  working 


\i 


292 


TUE    HUMAN   FACTOR   IN    INDUSTRY 


hours  lias  led  some  omployors  to  take  an  interest  in   the 
house   tiie  employe   lives   in,   the   recreational,  educational, 
and   health   facilities  which  are  availai)le  for  him  and  his 
family.     But  there  are  certain  important   principle-^  wliich 
every  employer  must  face  scjuarely.     What  the  employe  de- 
mands first  is  fair  vva^es.     Any  substitute  for  this  will  fail. 
What  the  employer  wants  is  efficient,  i)ermanent  employes. 
If  the  living;  conditions  in  a  connnuiiily  are  >uch  that  the 
payment  of  fair  wapes  alone  will   not    secuic  (hn'cnt    living 
conditions  for  his  employes,  ecoiKJiny  ;nid  jurticc  make  him 
responsihle   for   improving   these   conditions.     In   the   larfje 
city  an  employer  can  secure  decent  livinu;  conditions  for  his 
workers  hy  makinji  the  \n->\   transixiilation  facilities  avail- 
al)le,  havinjji;  an  information  service  in  regard  to  available 
accomnodations   and    perhaps   assisting   in    forminp;   a   co- 
o|)eriitive    store.     His    icsponsibilit y    ir^    the    isolated    com- 
nuuiityis  fireater,  and  -o  al.-o  ari    th"  dangers  of  his  assum- 
inu;   th.at    re>pon>il)ility.     Some  pitfalls   may   lie  avoided   if 
(he  method  of  selliiifi  lionets  is  such  tli.at    the  worker  will 
not    lose  credit  for  |)ayments  if  he  leaves  the  c(imi)any;    if 
leases   are   nut    automaticall\    ami    inunrdiately    terminable 
in  case  the  employe  leaves  the  compauN  or  there  is  a  strike; 
if  the  houses  provided  are  hyiiienic  and  coinfoitable.  and  it 
there   are   no    restrictions   which    impaii'   freedom,    such    as 
prohibiliny:  orderl     meetings  of  union  organizers      The   em- 
|)loy(>r  may  find  it   nece>s;uy  to  provide  (ducational,  recrea- 
tional, an<l   health  facilities  and  also  a  store.   I)\jt    if  wages 
are  -uflicient   to  provi<le  the  necessary  funds,  and  interest  in 
coniniunily    is   ,irou-.e.|,    the   em|)lo>-er   may   soon    -ibandon 
his  diicct  ei'i'orts,  |.t   llie  peojile  decide  what   thev  w.'inl  and 
give  ilieni  an  ojijiort  unity  lo  manage  the  thing  themselves. 
He  ma\   ill  this  way  become  a  :-trong  force  lor  the  improve- 
mi  nt  of  till-  genera!  he.ith  and  liapj)iness  of  the  community 
u  it  lioiil  lacing  th(   dangi  r  either  of  i)atern,ili-m  or  of  laissez- 
faire  i)ulicy. 


CHAPTER   XI 

INSURANCE,   SAVINXJS,    AND    LOANS 

Contingenciep  Which  Threaten  Each  Individual.  —  Sick- 
iit'ss,  accident,  death,  cild  a^e,  and  iiiva"  lity  are  coiiliiit^eiK'ies 
ill  the  life  of  the  indivichial.  Hut  when  they  will  .affect  any 
j;i\en  indi\idual  is  uncertain.  .\  person  is  sure  \n  <lie.  hut 
the  age  at  which  his  death  will  occur  cannot  lie  jiredeter- 
iiiiiKMJ.  Almost  everyliody  will  lie  sick  at  some  '  i:h'  or  tlie 
other,  but  .ig.iiii  ih.e  uncertainty  of  the  time  or  the  frecnicncy 
and  (>\tent  of  illness  make  it  difHcult  for  an  individual  to 
jirovide  out  of  s.avintrs  for  tlie  lost  wages  and  the  cost  of 
illness.  'I'lie  liasis  of  all  iiisuranc(>  is  to  spread  tiver  ;i  group 
of  per.sons  a  loss  that  m;iy  .affei't  any  one  of  them,  and  is 
certain  to  .affect  some  of  tliem  within  :i  givi'ii  period. 

Shifting  Basis  of  Mutual  Help.  In  ])rimitive  society 
the  pi'oiilems  of  the  individual  were  those  of  the  group,  and 
respon-ihility  was  a>r-umed  hy  the  family  or  tiihe  for  all 
colli  iimeiicies.  With  the  growing  coiiiiilexity  of  society, 
the  hasis  of  mutual  help  siiifted  from  the  iilooil  tie  to  the 
guild,  to  the  tr.ide  groiij),  or  economic  class.  Mutual  .\sso- 
ci.'itions  and  .V  id  Societies  weic  formed  to  pro\ide  tor  the 
h:i/aids  wliii  h  confronted  the  workiiigman  and  to  distril)ute 
hi>   los-es  .•uiioiig  the  group. 

Societies  for  Mutual  Aid.  —  Societies  for  iiiutiia!  aid  are 
known  hy  dilfereiit  names  in  \aiious  count  ric-.  (ireat 
Britain  lias  Friendly  Societie-:,  Trade  I'liioii  Heiielit  Socie- 
tie-~,  and  Shop  (liili^;  j'l.-ince  h.i-  her  Sucii'^ti'-s  d(>  Secours 
.Miitiiel-;  (  lei  luaiiy.  l.oc.al  Sick  I'uiids,  {■Istaltlishmciil  I'untis, 
and   Mutual   Aid    l"uiid- ;    in   the  Tnited  Mutes,  tlu"  cdito- 


?^ 


II 


^1^ 


li 


294  THE    HU-MAX    F.U'TUK    JX    INDUSTRY 


spoiidiiiii;  (iiiriiiiizalioiis  arc  the  i'ratcnial  Sock'tics,  Estab- 
li-liiiiciit    i'l.     Is,  and  Tiaili'  I'liiou  Bfiiciit  S<"lu'iiies.' 

Insurance  Companies.  —  These  eoriperativo  (efforts  have 
reacheil  (inly  a  portKin  nf  the  wmkiiiu:  class.  In  addition, 
nuitiial  and  <t()ck  insiuaiice  conipanic-s  in  Euroiu"  and  the 
I  nilcd  States  sujiiily  ttic  was*'  <'air!cr  with  needed  protec- 
tion af^ainst  financial  eniharrassnient.  To  (hite,  these  have 
t^oUfiiit  especially  to  meet  tlii'  cunt  iniii'iicy  of  d(\ith  ami  old 
a<ie,  hnt  tliry  aie  rapidly  hroadeiiin.u;  their  field  to  include 
sickness,  aiTideiit,  and  invalidity.  "The  Prudential"  of 
London  is  ln-djy  one  of  the  l;ir^e<t  carriers  of  sickness  in- 
surance in  Ilnulaiid.  '"  Industrial  Insurance,"  as  adminis- 
tered hy  the  life  insurance  companies  in  the  I'l  ,tcd  States, 
differ^  fi'om  "( )iiiinai-y  "  life  in-ur,ancc  only  ii,  li.it  the  pre- 
mium i-  p.aid  in  -mall  weekly  installments  and  that  the  pre- 
mium- I'emain  cun-tanl  while  the  anuiunt  <if  in.--urance  varies 
with  the  aiic.  Tile  co-t  i)f  llii-  t\  pe  of  in-urance  is  necessarily 
lii^hei'  than  "  '  >idinai'\-  '"  insurance  Kecause  of  the  expense  of 
premium  ci)lli'cii(in  imd  the  lii^her  moilality  I'ate  of  the  class 
of  pcdplc  takiiii:  <iut  llie-e  pelicies.  In  sjiite  of  thi-,  "  Indiis- 
t ,  ';d  !n-uranre  "  h;is  liecn  il-i  d  exlensi\ely  liy  the  wa^e-work- 
iii^  clas>e<  to  i>ro\idi'  protection  for  the  whole  family,  and 
in  iiar'ticiilar  for  women  ;ind  children  who  ai'e  excluded  from 
memlier-hip  in  indii-liial  muiiial  Ik  netit  -chrines.  "(Iroup 
In-ur,ince  "  i'^  another  mcihod  Ky  which  the  in>ur;incc  com- 
pany reai'lies  the  indu-tri.al  cla>^e<.  It  con>~ists  of  a  hlankct, 
policy  i>-ued  to  an  emjiNryei',  co\-eiiim  •""'  '"'  more  of  the 
ri-ks  to  which  the  employes  of  hi<  e<1;ilili<hment  are  -uhject. 
The  piemium-  foi-  tlii-  form  of  in-iiraiice  may  lie  paid  \<\  the 
cmplovcr  .done  oi-  I.y  the  empltiyer  ;nid  employes  jointly. 
Hecause  premium-  are  collecteil  directly  from  the  emi)loyer 
in  hulk,  the  cost  of  r.roiip  In-urance  is  proportionately  less. 

Legislation  'I'hc  intere-t  of  ^oci^'ty  in  the  priihli'tn  of 
mutu.i!  lid  is  evidenced  liy  the  passayje  of  Soi  i  d  In-u.ance 
Law- liy  r.mope.in  Lrovia-nnicnt-,  which  make  foi   the  |)rotec- 


IXSURANTE.   SAVIXOS.    AND    LOANS 


295 


tion  of  \v;iu;(>  earners.  In  the  I'nited  States,  len;islation  of 
this  typo  has  (l(>alt  so  far  only  with  accidents.  Since  1909 
Workmen's  Compensation  Laws  have  I'apidly  extended  1o 
thirty-eight  States,  the  Territories  of  Al;iska  and  Hawaii,  the 
Island  Po.'^sessions  of  Poi,.)  Rico  and  the  Philipi)ine  Tslaiuls. 
A  Federal  Law  provides  foi'  half  .a  iiullidn  emi)loyes.- 

Standards  by  Which  Insurance  Carriers  may  be  Judged. 
—  It  i.-^  important  to  tliscuss  the  part  which  the  manage- 
ment  of  industrial  plants  should  play,  Loth  now  and  in  the 
future,  in  develoi)ing  plans  for  the  protection  of  their  work- 
men against  the  hazards  of  industry.  These  questions  are 
now  being  considered  hy  employers  Lecause  they  appreciate 
that  the  (>mploye  freed  frrun  dread  of  the  loss  of  earnings  is 
a  more  etlit'ient  and  contented  worker,  and  because  the 
industrial  unit  has  !)een  found  convenient  for  the  adminis- 
tration of  jil.ans  of  protection  against  such  losses.  Co- 
operation on  the  part  of  the  employer  in  providing  insurance 
need  not  -.avor  of  p;itefn.di-m,  whetlier  he  pays  tlie  pn-miuin 
on  a  Croup  Lisurance  policy,  or  helps  the  employes  to  main- 
tain their  own  mutual  benefit  society.  Conditions  of  work 
and  mode  of  em|)loyment  are  freciiicntly  factors  contribut- 
ing to  the  breakdown  of  the  human  n>achine.  When  the 
breakdown  comes  it  i-  only  ju-t  that  industiv  sliould  take> 
its  shall'  of  the   I'e-pou-ibilit v.'' 

The  i^oitits  to  lie  liorne  in  mind  in  the  consideration  ot 
method-  of  p'oti'ct  ion  or  iii^uranci'  are  a'^  follows  :  ( 1  Mhcre 
mu.-t  lie  as  wide  ,a  di-tribnt ion  of  risks  as  pos^ilile  ;  (2)  admin- 
i>tr;ilion  should  be  liy  evi,ert^  :  l'-\)  the  benefits  must  be  ade- 
([U  lie  ;  (  t !  th(>  co-t  of  admin  i-t  tat  ioii  -hould  be  low  ,  (,"))  the 
freeijoiii  of  the  emiiloye  to  choose  e!nplo\tiient  wlieic  he 
pleases  must  not  be  hampered  by  hi-  p  iit  iiip.ition  in  .atiy 
insm'ance  schetne. 


206 


THE    HUMAN    FACTOR    IX    INDUSTRY 


Sickness  Ixsi-hancr 

Cost  of  Illness  to  Industry.  —  The  frequoiK  y  with  which 
ilhu'ss  occurs,  the  loss  of  time  and  tlic  iiiiaiicial  (nnharrass- 
iiiciit  whicliit  causes,  and  the  devastation  it  produces  0:1  the 
n:ition  ami  imhistiy  Ity  lowering  jxiwer  of  resistance  and 
efficiency,  have  caused  the  development  of  nietliods  of  partial 
compensation  for  lost  wages.  Sickness  surveys  made  by 
the  Metro])olitan  I,ife  Insurance  Company,  coverim:  ('>()(),()(}0 
in(Uvi(hials.  sliow  tliat  an  averafieof  L'.d'J  \)rv  cent  of  tlu-  popu- 
lation studied  wei-e  sick,  while  l.SS  per  cent  were  unable  to 
work,  and  that  the  aveia.iie  atimial  loss  of  titne  was  '}A\  work- 
irip  days.'  Tlie  Soci.d  Insurance  Commissions  of  California 
and  Comiectiiut  e^timate(l  the  time  lost  amnially  I)y  each 
wape  earnei'   throuiih    illness   as  days,'   while    the   Ohio 

Conimis^ion  i)nts  the  avei-ajxe  a        .   ■    d.ays.'"' 

Present  Extent  of  Sickness  In?'  -aace.  -  It  is  difhcult  to 
estimate  with  any  exactness  the  extent  of  sickness  insurance 
among  tlu-  wage-working  population.  But  fi'om  the  study 
publishetl  in  lOOS  by  the  United  States  Department  of  L.abor  ' 
and  later  investigations  made  li.\'  Sydeiistricker  for  the  United 
States  Public  Health  Seivice,^  it  would  seem  that  the  numlxM' 
of  wage  earnei's  jirotected  is  small  .and  that  the  amount  of 
pi'dtcctioii  i-  in;idei|uati'. 

Trade-Union  Funds.  Trade  unions  have  made  attempts 
through  voluntary  action  to  iii-urc  their  members.  The 
majority  of  t!ie<e  schemes  give  benelits  in  case  of  t(Mnpor;iry 
disability,  Tlii>  u-u.ally  includes  disability  resulting  from 
sickiic-s  .and  .ai'cident.  The  Sydcn^t  ricker  study  indie  'es 
that  abiMit  S.'i  per  mil  of  the  n.atioual  and  international 
union<  liad  >ick  liciutit  -chcmes  in  ^ome  of  llnir  locab.  <  M 
the  .">:;()  local  union  bcmlil  funds  included  in  the  Bureau  of 
bailor  Statistics  study.  'M)S,  or  .")S  per  cent .  p, aid  sick  benelits. 
Hut  labor  unimi-  do  net  ni  all  |>i(il labilil  v  co\er  more  lli.in 
;5()    iKM-    cuil    ol    ihe    mdu-tri.d    workias.     The    i^amd-    for 


IXSURAN'CE,  SAVINGS,   AND    LOANS 


297 


wliirh  honofits  aro  paid  vary,  hut  about  70  per  otnit  of  the 
t('nii)()rary  disability  funds  i)ay  for  thiitccn  weeks  or  loss. 
The  amount  of  cash  IxMiefit  is  from  one  dollar  to  fifteen 
dollars  per  week,  l)Ut  the  average  amount  paid  i^er  day  for 
temporary  disaliility,  according  to  availal)l(>  information,  is 
about  eighty  cents.  Only  thirty-thi'ee  of  these  h)cal  funds 
investigated  inchide  any  provision  for  permanent  disability. 

Fraternal  Societies.  —  The  fraternal  societies  have 
ai'hieved  limited  success  in  the  field  of  sickness  insurance. 
In  19b")  thirty  of  the  179  National  Fraternal  Societies  offered 
sickness  insurance.  The  sick  IxMiefits  ar(>  usuall}-  So.OO  a 
week  for  a  period  varying  from  twelve  weeks  to  nine 
months. 

Employes'  Benefit  Associations.  —  An  effort  has  been  made 
by  Mr.  Sydenstricker  to  give  a  conservative  estimat(>  of 
th(>  munber  of  manufacturing  and  mining  establishments 
having  mutual  Ix  -lit  funds  in  the  I'nited  States.  He 
states  tliat  ;dthough  the  answcM's  to  his  (juestionnaire  indi- 
cate that  19  per  cent  have  such  funds,  a  more  correct  estimate 
is  i)robabIy  10  12  \)cr  c(Mit.  The  reason  for  this  lower  esti- 
mate i.^  that  prolialibv  the  laige  majority  of  those  not  replying 
to  the  (pu^stionnaire  had  no  such  fund.>. 

Of  the  389  funds  studied,  two  thirds  paid  ben(>fifs  for  thir- 
teen weeks  or  less.  This  i-  a  situation  somewhat  similar  to 
tliat  found  by  the  Bureau  of  Labor  Statistics.  In  its  study  of 
•1J9  fu  id-^,  .").'i  ])er  cent  pai(i  beiielits  for  thirteen  \veeks  or  less. 
The  predominant  w(-ekly  ratt;  for  temi)orary  disability  wa.s 
live  or  six  dollars.  Only  al "out  12  per  cent  of  the  101  funds 
studied  by  th<'  l^ureau  of  Labor  Statistics  pay  permanenl 
disaiiility  benefits. 

Basis  for  Employes'  Benefit  Association.  —  Perh.iiis  tlie 
most  thorough  study  of  Mutual  Hen.  fit  A--ociations  was 
that  of  .'.TO  m.ade  by  Mr.  W.  L.  Chandler  of  t!ie  Dodge 
M.anufactminu  ('ompanx  IVom  tlii^  invest  ig.ii  ion  certain 
fjudusioiis  were  readied  atid  tiiiHl  out  in  the  Dodge  orgail- 


•  1 


'I' 


>f 


298 


THE    HUMAN    FACTOR    IX    INDUSTRY 


iziition.     The  results  of  this  survey  unswer  several  problems, 
as  follows : 

(1)  A  benefit  association  increases  the  ('fficieney  of  its  members. 
It  is  a  means  of  eliminating  soin(3  of  t\w  economic  waste  due  to  ill- 
ness. 

(2)  To  l)e  effec'ix  e,  nn  association  must  be  sound  and  oom'nand 
the  confidence  of  the  employes.  The  rate  shoidd  be  safe  so  that 
assessments  are  not  necessary.      .\ctiiari;ii   t,'ui(lan(ie  is  necessary. 

(.'?)  if  is  better  to  make  th(^  system  so  attractive  tliat  all  will 
want  to  join  than  to  make  it  compulsory.  Tlie  experience  of  the 
Dod},'e  .Vssoc'iation  and  otiiers  shows  that  a  consistent  and  enthusi- 
astic sales  elTort  by  the  secretary  will  result  in  about  a  70  per  cent 
membership. 

(4)  Tlu*  association  should  be  managed  for  and  li.v  the  employes 
with  the  ecninsel  and  ('(mixration  of  the  management. 

(5)  The  employer  may  allow  the  ollicers  of  the  association  to 
transact  their  business  on  comi)any  time,  but  the  members  should 
carry  the  balance  of  the  cost.  If  the  employer  assumes  part  of  the 
premium  it  may  seem  paternalistic.  The  Dodge  Manufacturing 
Company  aUows  the  officers  to  transact  their  business  on  company 
time. 

(())  The  qui'stion  (}f  retenti(m  of  membership  in  an  association 
when  an  emi)loy(>  h>aves  or  is  laid  off  should  be  given  careful  con- 
sideration. Unh'ss  tlie  member  remains  within  the  same  locality 
supervision  is  dinicult.  The  Dodge  .Vssociation  has  solved  this 
difficulty  by  terminating  the  membership  of  any  employe  when  he 
leaves  the  em[)loy  of  the  company,  exce[)t  in  r'ase  member  is  tem- 
porarily laid  ofT. 

(7,1  There  may  be  \arious  classes  of  memlxrs.  each  member 
electing  beiielils  which  best  suit  liis  needs.  The  total  benefit 
recei\ed  by  an.\'  one  persim  shouhi  not  exceed  !)0  [)er  cent  of  his  wage. 
The  Doilgc experience  shows  that  :: n  clTort  should  be  made  to  induce 
nuMiilnTS  to  carry  at  least  .">()  or  <i')  per  cent  c)f  their  average  wage. 

Hrcjiuse  (if  the  vaiyhi^  coiidil  ions  it  wouhl  he  an  iiitpossi- 
hiiity  t'l  set  down  hard  and  fast  rules  for  the  organization 
or  reorganization  of  an  Employes'  Heiiefit  .\ssociaiion,  but 
Mr.  Chandlci's  ^encr.d  principles,  based  on  wid<'  experience, 
cannot    iuil    be  helpful   lo  any  one  attempt in^j;  to  estal)Iish 


u     llelt' 


ier..'i^e     tbe    ellle 


ftf    'iM    evict  uio    •ts'.iocei  t  ii  tn 


IXSURAXCE,  SAVIXGS,   AND   LOANS 


299 


Success  of  Joint  Management.  —  It  is  iily  within  recent 
years  that  employers  have  begun  to  reaU/.i'  that  l>y  I(>iuiing 
their  cooperation  the  employes'  heiietit  association  can  he 
made  a  much  more  effective  instrument  for  establishing  that 
necessary  confi(l(>nce  and  good-will  between  employer  and 
enploye  which  result  in  decreasi-d  al)senteeism  and  lal)or 
turnover. 

The  Bureau  of  Labor  Statistics  made  a  study  of  the  rela- 
tionship between  management  and  membership  and  found 
that  where  the  fuii<ls  were  managed  by  employes,  30  per 
cent  of  the  employes  were  meml)ers  ;  where  managed  by 
employers  alone,  75  per  cent  of  the  employes  weie  members  ; 
and  where  mam^ged  jointly,  GG  per  cent  of  the  employes 
were  members.^  These  figures  point  to  apparently  better 
re>ults  in  associations  managed  by  employers.  In  the  long 
run  the  objects  and  aims  of  IMutual  Association  may  be 
better  conserved  if  the  members  have  the  opportunity  and 
gain  the  experience  of  joint  management  or  management 
with  cooperation  of  the  employer. 

The  International  Harvester  Company's  Mutual  Benefit 
Association  is  managed  jointly  by  a  board  of  trustees, 
one  half  chosen  by  member  enqjloyes  and  one  half  nam<>d 
by  the  company.  The  company  contriljutes  .■§25, 000  per 
year  if  50  per  cent  of  the  employes  are  members,  and 
S50,000  if  75  per  cent  arc  mcmbei-s.  Since  the  found- 
ing of  the  association  in  lOOS,  the  larger  sum  has  been 
contributed  every  year  and  there  has  never  b(>en  any  deficit 
in  the  fund.      Membership  is  voluntary."' 

The  memb(Msiiip  in  the  association  of  the  Cadillac  Motor 
Company  is  voluntary.  The  company  pays  all  expenses  of 
administration.  Tlu-  association  is  in  charge  of  the  sui'er- 
iiitcndcnt  of  the  welfare  department ,  with  an  ai'visory  com- 
mittee, one  half  of  wliich  is  selected  by  tin-  management  and 
one  half  elected  annually  from  among  the  employes.     The 

ill,  I(r>.ii.tit    iiC    tlii<    I'l  iiimnt  t  I'l'   i'.    fiiril    in    :ill    Miiix-.'lls," 


300 


THE    HUMAN    PWCTOFl    IX    INDUSTRY 


Tho  Huyck  ami  Sons  Employes'  Bonofit  Association  was 
established  in  1911  with  al)()ut  98  per  cent  of  the  employes 
as  members.  It  is  operated  by  two  committees,  one  repre- 
senting the  m(Mi  and  one  the  women.  Each  committee  is 
made  up  of  meinliers  representing  the  employes  and  the 
comj)any.  The  company  pays  all  the  expenses  of  accident 
compensation  and  pensions,  and  the  employes  cimtributc 
1  per  cent  of  tluir  wages  toward  the  cost  of  siclaiess 
insurance. '- 

Employers'  Judgment  of  Mutual  Benefit  Associations. 
—  Many  corporations  have  already  passt d  favorable  judg- 
ment upon  the  results  of  an  l']mi)loyes"  Benc^fit  Association. 
The  Cadillac  Motor  Cai-  Company,  the  International 
Harvester  Company,  F.  C.  Huyck  and  Sons,  and  numerous 
others  give  the  results  of  (he  Employes'  Benefit  Association 
in  rather  delinite  language  as  follows;  It  h  is  been  succc^ssful 
in  prev(>nting  malingering,  if  brings  the  employe  back  to 
work  with  a  lighter  load  of  d<'bt,  it  breeds  the  spirit  of  man 
and  company  co()peration,  (^ncourages  contentment  by 
teaching  self-reliance,  and  it  is  worth  more  to  the  company 
than  it  costs. 

Group  Insurance.  —  Insurance  compani(>s  are  develop- 
ing "  Ciroup  Insurance"  to  provide*  both  life  and  sickness 
insurance  to  meet  the  pr;)blem  of  insolvency  which  faces  the 
detach(>d  mutual  benefit  association.  The  employeM'  usually 
I)ays  th(>  life  insurance^  premium,  but  a  contributory  plan 
has  proved  successful  for  sickness  insurance.  In  every 
(>s1ablishment  where  this  phm  has  b(>en  followed,  over  80 
percent  of  the  total  number  of  employes  have  voluntarily 
enrolled.  It  is  not  necessary  that  every  emi)love  be  en- 
rolled, i)Ut  if  llie  plan  is  attractive  the  percent  joining  will 
ordinarily  be  high  eriough  to  luakr  insurance  feasible." 

(Iroup  sickness  insurance  is  of  sueli  recent  origin  that  it  is 
'difficult  to  find  .'iiiv  -statement  of  oi)iiiion  as  to  its  results  ex- 

Cipi  111  ;t  \  el_y  ^eiiriai  w  ;i  \  .       .Mi.  i  i  ir^>  ui  i  in-  v   ioi  iuKlil  iSiiupa 


INSURANCE,  SAVINGS,  AND  LOANS 


301 


in  Clcvpland,  aftor  an  investigation  of  almost  every  known 
sclieme  of  insuiance,  coneludod  tiiat  scliemes  conducted  with- 
out the  aid  of  experts  were  apt  to  fail  in  their  puipose.  The 
Clothcraft  Shops  placed  all  of  their  insurance,  including 
accident  and  sickn(\ss,  old  age,  and  life  insurance,  in  the 
hands  of  an  insurance  company,  with  a  department  within 
the  plant  organized  for  their  supervision  and  administration.''' 

Standards  of  Evaluation  for  Various  Methods  of  Sickness 
Insurance.  —  Each  type  of  insurance  should  be  evaluated 
accortUng  to  the  opportunity  it  offers  for  the  distribution 
of  risk,  economical  administration,  superA-ision  by  experts, 
the  degree  to  which  it  permits  freedom  to  the  insured,  and 
the  adequacy  of  the  benefits  provided. 

Distribution  of  Risk.  —  The  trade  union  may  be  able  to 
manage  simple  forms  of  insurance  which  do  not  demand 
hea\'y  reserves  and  large  investment.  Although  there  is 
not  very  wide  distribution  of  risk  in  a  small  local  union  the 
members  are  exposed  to  similar  hazards.  The  habits  of 
members  are  known  and  malingering  is  more  readily  pre- 
vented. The  local  fiaternal  society,  which  is  the  usual 
carrier  of  sickness  benefits  in  fraternal  orders,  also  lacks  wide 
distribution  of  risk.  "  The  strength  of  the  fraternal  associ- 
ation lies  in  a  certain  sj'mpathy,  even  sentimentaHty,  which 
binds  the  memb(>rs  together  in  strong  bonds,  but  which  ob- 
scures the  judgment  of  hard  mathematical  facts  and  is  incon- 
sistent with  the  necessary  cold-blooded  calculation  and  Vmsi- 
ness  direction  which  assures  the  wise  management  of  funds. "'^ 
The  statement  of  many  employers  indic:ites  that  employes' 
mutual  benefit  schemes  organized  in  the  industry  with 
the  cooper-^tion  of  the  employer  have  the  advantage  of  eccm- 
omy  and  the  easy  pr(*vention  of  malingering,  and  should  have 
no  difTiculty  in  pr'jvii'iiig  t(-m])()rary  disability  benefits  in 
case  of  sicknc^ss  and  arcidciifs.  Hut  hcii'  again  the  dis- 
tribution of  risk  may  not  lie  suHiciently  wide.     An  epidemic, 

!  ..  .f.  .-.-.  .      ii      -.r.„    ,  ,vi.  ..  .       I ! !......!     !  ;..       ...  ..-i  ..'.-,-.        f,.        ;-...-:-.!*        i-i: 


»* 


302 


THE   HUMAN   FACTOR    IX    INDUSTRY 


the  bankruptcy  of  an  employes'  benefit  association,  even  if 
tlie  premium  is  ordinarily  adequate.  It  is  possible  that 
these  associations  may  serve  as  a  nucleus  for  the  pro%-ision 
of  more  extended  l>enefits  under  the  fj;roup  plan,  whereby 
tlic  benefit  association  would  b(-  reinsured  by  a  regular  in- 
surance company.  The  cost  wcjuld  be  low,  but  rates 
wuuld  be  dclermiiud  and  surplus  invested  l)y  experts. 
Group  insurance  is  the  only  type  of  insurance  in  which 
solvency  is  secured  by  wide  distribution  of  risk  and  expert 
adnrnistration. 

Benefits.  —  Neither  the  trade  union,  fraternal  society,  nor 
establishment  fund  provides  for  sufficient  benefits.  Because 
of  the  danger  of  malingering,  the  payment  of  full  salary  has 
not  been  found  feasible.  The  Metropolitan  Life  Insurance 
Company,  however,  has  found  it  possible  to  insure  its  em- 
ployes, under  a  group  plan,  for  a  benefit  equivalent  to  two 
thirds  of  the  weekly  wage  for  twenty-six  weeks,  with  a  re- 
duced benefit  continuing  to  age  05.'** 

Restriction  of  Liberty.  —  No  form  of  insurance  will  meet 
with  success  and  accomplish  r(>sults  which  restricts  the 
liberty  of  the  employes  or  savors  of  paternalism.  The 
Employes'  Benefit  Association  organized  projierly,  with  the 
cooperation  of  the  employer  but  controlled  and  supported 
by  the  employes,  seems  least  likely  to  r(>strict  liberty.  The 
fear  that  the  system  of  Insurance  may  lie  used  in  laVjor  dis- 
putes as  a  weapon  against  strikers  is  a  real  one  that  must  be 
faced.  If  this  difficulty  is  met,  employers  will  ordinarily  be 
glad  to  contribute  to  a  vtjluntary  system  of  sickne.=s  in- 
surance which  they  believe  to  be  actuarially  sound.  The 
benefit  association,  if  protected  by  reinsurance,  is  safe  as 
well  as  democratic. 

Province  of  Sickness  Insurance  in  United  States.  —  In 
the  United  Slates  sickness  insur.'ince  has  accomimnied  the 
more  important  and  wid>'spr(vid  campaign  for  the  im])rove- 
meul   i)i    lieaiLii   tDmiiiinri^.      i  ii<-   province  or   insurance  jp 


INSURANCE,   SAVINGS,  AND   LOANS 


303 


not  to  prevent  sickness,  but  so  to  distribute  the  loss  conse- 
quent upon  illness  that  a  substitute'  is  i)rovidod  for  wa^es 
during  the  periud  of  disability.  "  It  is  thus  simply  the  hand- 
maid of  a  larger  vision  of  society  which  sees  the  possil)ility  of 
deaUngwith  social  ills,  not  by  giving  compensation  for  their 
effects,  but  by  eradicating  their  causes."  '' 

Like  Insurance 

Life  Insurance  Inadequate.  —  The  death  of  the  bread- 
winner invariably  causes  economic  loss  to  the  family,  espe- 
cially in  the  case  of  premature  death.  Deaths  under  the 
age  of  forty-five  constitute  nearly  50  per  cent  of  all  deaths 
in  the  professional  classes,  GO  per  cent  in  personal  service, 
55  per  cent  in  manufacturing  and  mechanical  industries,  and 
68  per  cent  among  laboring  and  servant  classes.^  The  work- 
ing class  is  largely  unable  to  provide  for  other  than  present- 
day  needs  unless  that  provision  is  cheap,  and  if  one  adds 
to  this  the  fact  that  the  motive  for  taking  out  life  insurance 
is  an  unselfish  one,  it  becomes  evident  that  the  vast  majority 
of  the  population  have  little  or  no  protection  against  the 
distress  which  commonly  follows  the  death  of  the  wage 
earner.  That  some  form  of  life  insurance  is  needed  is 
abundantly  testified  to  by  one  large  automobile  company 
carrying  grouj)  insurance.  This  company  kept  close  record 
of  the  conditions  in  the  homes  of  its  employes.  Out  of  the 
first  fifty  claims  that  were  paid,  it  was  reported  that  there 
had  been  only  one  case  in  which  the  claim  money  was  not 
urgently  needed  to  f)revent  immediate  distress.  Another 
large  company  studied  the  need  for  the  claim  money  in  over 
one  hundred  homes,  with  practically  the  same  result.'* 

Present  Provisions.  —  There  have  been  various  attempts 
made  to  offer  the  worker  a  method  of  protecting  his  de- 
pendents. Insurance  companies  offer  ordinary  life  and 
mdustnal  policies.     Ordinary  hie  insurance  is  usually  issued 


ti 


\ 


304 


THE    HUMAN    FACTOID    IX    [NDT'STRY 


in  sums  of  Sl()0(),()r  inultiplcs  thereof,  with  preiuuiius  piiyiihlc 
annually,  semi-annually,  or  quarterly.  In  1918  ai)pro.\i- 
niately  10  per  cent  of  the  poi)ulation  in  the  United  States,  or 
10,000,000  persons,  held  ordinary  life-insurance  j)olicies 
amounting  to  about  S20,000,0()0,00().i-'  But  altiiough  this 
form  of  protection  is  popular  among  the  middle  classes  the 
vast  majority  of  \vag(>  earners  are  unable  to  sav(>  the  required 
amount  for  the  premium.  In  order  to  make  life  insurance 
available  for  a  larger  part  of  the  population,  industrial 
insurance  has  l)een  developed  which  jorovides  protection  for 
every  member  of  the  family  from  age  1  upwards.  The 
number  of  industrial  policies  i-sued  by  insurance  companies 
is  large,  about  41,010, lOS  of  these  policies  being  in  force 
in  1918.*^  Mutual  associations,  trade  unions,  and  establish- 
ment benefit  societies  hav(>  also  attem])ted  to  provide  death 
or  funeral  benefits.  The  fraternal  .societies  us<  Mv  issue 
life  insurance.     The   expenses  of  administration  '>m- 

paratively  low. 

Employes'  Benefit  Associations.  —  Th(>  average  insurani 
carried  [)er  certificate  by  Fraternal  Societies  is  nearly  SIOOO. 
The  policy-ho'  1.  r  e  in  p;i:t  tradesmen  and  those  engaged 
in  mercantile  rather  than  in  industrial  pursuits.-"  Ninety 
per  cent  of  the  establishment  funds  included  in  the  United 
States  Dei)artment  of  Labor  study  pay  death  benefits,  the 
l)redominant  amount  being  .S50  and  SIOO.' 

Group  Life  Insurance.  —  Groui)  insurance  originated  in 
the  field  of  Life  Insurance  becau.se  of  th(>  need  for  more 
effective  and  more  economical  means  of  safeguarding  the 
family  of  the  wage  worker.  There  is  reason  to  believe  that 
grou])  insurance,  with  its  miancial  soundness  aiid  manage- 
ment ])y  experts,  will  be  adopted  as  the  standard  method 
of  providing  tli(>  wage  earner  with  protection.  It  is  issued 
not  only  to  cover  death  but  may  include  also  sick  antl  acci- 
dent benefits.  Under  the  plan,  employes  of  one  employer 
may  have  their  lives  insured  for  amornts  of  not  less  than 


INSURANCE,  SAVINGS,   AND   LOANS 


305 


SaOO,  nor  more  than  SWOO.  In  the  lai'so  majority  of  States 
a  niedical  examination  is  not  roquiretl  where  the  group  in- 
chides  more  than  fifty  indiviihial  lives.  A  blanket  policy 
is  issued  to  the  employer,  and  certifieates  of  insurance  are 
fuinished  for  each  employe  covered.  Group  insurance  is 
{lenerall}'  \vritt(-n  on  the  low  cost  One  Year  Renewable  Term 
nlan  ;  tlie  |)reiiuum  usually  paid  by  the  employer  approxi- 
i  lates  about  1  per  cent  of  the  total  amount  of  insurance 
provided.  Th(>  amount  of  lii'e  insurance  awarded  each  em- 
ploye may  be  graduated  on  the  basis  of  length  of  service, 
salary,  or  class  of  en.ployment ;  thus  representing  both  a 
reward  for  past  services  ;uid  an  incentive  for  future  services. 
Another  method  is  to  give  each  employe  a  uniform  fixed 
amount  of  insurance. 

This  form  of  insurance  was  inaugurated  in  1012  by  a  com- 
pany which  issued  a  .s7,0()0,00()  policy  on  the  lives  of  the  em- 
ployes of  the  Montgomery  Ward  Corporation  of  Chicago. 
In  1920  ;dl  recortls  were  broken  when  over  $50,000,000 
insurance  was  issued  on  the  lives  of  70,000  employes  of  the 
General  Electric  Company. 

Evaluation  of  Various  Forms  of  Life  Insurance.  Trade 
Union  a-ii  Establishment  Funds.  —  Neither  the  efforts  of 
the  establishment  funds  nor  of  the  trade  unions  can  be  digni- 
fied by  the  t(>rm  life  insurance.  The  more  important  criti- 
cisms of  these  efforts  are  that  the  luMiefits  are  so  small  that 
it  is  not  life  insurance  at  all  and  that  most  of  the  funds  are 
not  actuarially  sound.  The  danger  that  these  funds  will 
fail  is  lessened  if  there  is  a  continual  entrance  of  new  members, 
but  exp(M-ienc(>  has  shown  that  this  is  difficult  to  obtain.  The 
consequ(Mit  cost  to  the  persistent  members  becomes  practi- 
cally prohibitive.  The  more  seiious  criticism  is  pcM'hapsthat 
the  economic  proMi'iii  of  death  is  no;  met.  One  of  the  ex- 
ceptions to  this  i«  the  International  Harvester  Company's 
Itenefit  scheme,  wliieh  provides  ;(  substantial  death  benefit  of 
two  years'  average  wages,  but     :  t  more  -.lian  .?3()00. 


30() 


TllK    IH'MAX    I'ACTOH    IX    INDUSTRY 


Fraternal  Insurance.  -  A  It  hot  iiih  tlurc  ;irc  no  fiKures, 
the  general  opinion  i.  thai  fraternal  societies  do  not  provide 
life  insurance  for  those  most  needing;  it,  tlie  low  paid  and  un- 
skilled. This  form  of  insurance  i>  often  actuarially  un- 
sound. 

Group  Life  Insurance.     Costs  and  Results  of  Group  Life 
Insurance.  -  (Iroup  life  insurance  is  tiie  only  system  under 
which   the   wage   worker's    family   i-^   adcijuately    protected 
through  tb(»  industry  by  an  organization  in  which  the  basic 
principles    of    insurance    are    followed.     It    has    developed 
chiefly  a-  an  emph)yers'  proposl.ion  and  is  usually  furnished 
on  a  gratuitous  basi.s.      The  employe's  motive  for  taking 
out  life  iiisur.'ince  is  .iii    nif<iljlsh  one.     Because  of  this  fact 
and  tlie  .xpense  involved,  this  form  of  protection  does  not 
lend  it-i'lf  so  well  to  tlH>  development  of  a  contributory  plan. 
Where  it    is   coniliined   with  a  contributory  sickness  policy 
any  possible  tendency  to  paternalism  is  overcome  and  a  real 
provision  for  the  dependents  of  ih-  wage  earner  is  made. 
This  is  the  form  of  in-uiiinci    '        n  iIh'  Metropolittm  Life 
In-^urance  ('oini)any  olTiTs  to  it>  honie-otlici^  employes.     The 
life  of  every  tMni)lnye  whose  salary  i-  le»  than  Sr)()00  a  year, 
who  acce|)tfi  the  offer  (»f  tin'  group  disability  policy  towards 
which  the  cotnpauy  pays  a  i)erci>nt;ige  i.f  the  premium  vary- 
imi  according  to  th'-  years  of  service  of  the  employe,  is  in- 
siu-ed  for  an  anionn.  equal  to  one  year's  -alary  up  to  .S'jnoO, 
the  eompanv  paying  the  full  pri'iniui  i.     There  i-  an  arrange- 
ment  b\-  ■vtiich  an  employe  leaving  lln'  servier  i.t  tlie  mm- 
jiany    can   , ccure   in>uranee    without    medical    rxamiiiation. 
The  otf.r  to  th"  held  force  is  -imilar,  but  the  maxinnim  of  the 
in^'iranci'  i-^  in  this  case  S2()()(>."' 

Experience  ha<  demonstrated  that  ;m  iinployer's  return 
on  tin-  group  life  in-iirance  investment  will  varv  in  pro- 
portion to  the  extent  to  which  his  •■mployes  are  brought  to 
under^'nn.!  group  life  insurance  and  .apiireei.ite  its  beiiefits. 
The  best  results  ciunot  be  secured  if  the  group  life  Iransac- 


IXSUKANCE,   SAVINGS,    AND    LOANS 


307 


tioii  is  limited  to  the  issiunuc  uf  tli.'  policy  and  certificutt's, 
the  collection  of  |)i'('nuuni.-;,  the  piiynicnt  of  death  claims, 
and  satisfactory  handling;  of  the  limited  clerical  work  in- 
volvec'.  To  insure  the  empl(>yer  a  satisfactory  return  on  his 
investment,  it  is  ivcessary  that  the  |i;r<iU])  life  idea  be 
"  sold  "  to  his  employes.  At  least  one  company  has  created 
i.n  organization  wtiich  undertakes  to  reach  not  only  the  em- 
ployes, hut  systematically  and  re}i;ularly  to  carry  hack  into 
their  homes  .and  to  their  families, an  appreciation  of  the  em- 
ployer's adoption  of  jjroup  life  insurance. 

The  increasiuff  popularity  of  this  insurance  is  perhaps  the 
best  indication  of  the  retiu'ns  that  employers  are  receiving 
from  such  an  expendituri'  of  one  or  t\M)  per  cent  of  ti  eir  pay 
roll. 

Till'  following  comments  by  employers  are  of  interest : 
"  We  think  the  henetits  d(>rived  from  the  proposition  warrant 
tlie  expenditure  and  are  very  plad  tint  we  m  ide  the  arrange- 
imiit,  both  from  a  !iuniai;itarian  stand|)oiiit  and  from  the 
fait  that  it  increased  the  satisfactory  relations  between  the 
men  .and  t  he  coinj)any."  ■''  "It  i<t!iel)esl  thing  I  have  ever 
had  anything  to  di>  with  in  my  tui-ine-s  ex])erience  in  di  aling 
with  employes.  If  it  cost  twice  what  it  does  I  would  not 
hesitate  to  keej)  it."  2' 


ArriDKNT   roMPKVSATION 

Some  Accidents  Inevitable.  The  experience  of  many 
years  indicate-  that  .il'tcr  all  po--ible  .safely  devices  have 
been  ins|;dled,  a  certain  iiuiuiier  of  accidents  ure  inevitable."* 

Basic    Principle    fT    Industrial    Accident     Insurance. 

.\lmosi  all  count  lies  agree  I  hat  the  entiic  cost  of  compensa- 
tion foi'  indu>tii;d  accidents  >ho\ild  fall  upon  the  employiT. 
The  concept i<m  of  "  trade  risk  "  tmdcrlies  the  development 
of  this  doctrine  as  opposid  to  the  old  tl  irv  iia-cd  on  "  the 
fellow-servant    rule,"  "  the  assumption  of  ri,-k  "  and  "  con- 


308  TllK    IHMAN     I  A<T()U    IN     IMJUSTRV 


triluitoiv    ni'i;lifj;<'n<'c."     Tln'   piimijilc   ot'    "  trade   risk  '     is 
l>;t>((l  nil   the  f.ict    that    iiKiiiv  acriddit s  occur  through  tl 
I'iiult  (if  no  one,  Iml  >iiiii)ly  as  the  ivsult  of  certain  iiuhistrial 
proc'ossos.  and  that  lircau.-e  of  this,  ituhistry  and  nol  the  em- 
ployr  >lioulil  liiar  ilir  Imithn.' 

Development  of  Compensation  Principle  in  the  United 
States.  The  transfn  rin^  of  the  ti!ian<'ial  i'(-pon>ihiHt y 
from  tlir  employe  to  the  em|)l(>yer  i-  the  coinpen>ation  pi'in- 
ciplr.  Til  jiidvide  comjirii^ation  i-  the  duly  of  accident 
in-uraiicc.  Sincr  I'.Ki'.t  the  Workmen'.-  ( 'oinprusation  move- 
ment ha-  followed  the  cNampJe  si't  li\  lau'opc.  At  the  pres- 
ent time  \Vorkmiir<  ( 'onipfn>at  ion  laws  are  in  iorce  in 
most  of  our  State-.  'I'hr  laiLli-h  .-y.-t<in  in  which  the  em- 
ployer is  alloNved  to  -elect  the  a^eiicv  throujili  which  he  will 
insure  has  liceii  fallowed  in  (lii<  eiaintry  in  preference  to  tlie 
C'lcrman  sx'stem  of  cdinpul-oiy  insinance  in  m.'Mial  .-ocieties. 
In  thirty-nne  State-  the  eni[iioyer  i-  j;iven  option  as  to  tho 
metliod  i>f  in^uiinsi;  hi-  ri-k,  and  in  Iwenty-mne  State-  >elf- 
in^l^•ance  i-  jiei'mitted.'' 

Insurance  Carrier.  .\-  the  financial  n  -pon-ikility  of  em- 
ployei-  for  indu-tiial  .accidenl-  ha-  lieconie  ]iia<'tica!ly  a 
universal  pi-imiple,  the  methoil  of  in-uranci-  i-  important  to 
the  w(irkini:man  only  in  -o  far  ;i-  -olvency  ami  cert.ainty  of 
p.aymiiit  an'  iruaranlei d.  It  i-  a  iirohhrn  jiiimarily  for  the 
empl'Vii.  who  will  -eleet  the  earlier  in-uiin^i  economy  and 
(  llieienc\-.  There  is  tiUih  .1  lick  (if  uniformiiy  of  opinion 
even  within  a  ^ivei\  State  that  it  seem-  impus-iiije  to  e<ti- 
mutc  tl'.e  value  of  tlie  \  .niou-  -cheines.  Se!f-in-ur,ince 
has  boon  recduniieudi  d  a-  a  means  to  torce  interest  in 
"Safety  l'ii>t."'  r>ut  thi-  fdiin  of  insurance  i-  prohaMy 
the  least  sound,  linancially.  hecau-e  of  the  loiij^  period  over 
whii'h  p:iymenl-  nnr-t  lie  made  and  hecausc  a  very  .serious 
accid.nt  mav  mak--  it  dilln  i-ll  to  meet  oITifrations.  The 
instaliatmn  if  safety  devices  probably  acc(inipli-hc<  the 
same  result  as  s«  lf-in>urance,  acitmlinM;  '"   'I'e  experience 


IXsrRAXCK,    SAVlNCiS,    AND    LuA.NS 


auu 


•^f    th(>    I'orllaud    ('(nicnt    Compjiny    of    California.     The 
tiji^did  in  connection  witli  llic  inainifactuic  of  cement  pie- 
sun.alily  was  such  as  towai  rant  tlie  Hoard  of  Insurance  I'ndcr- 
writers  to  ajinc  upon  a  rate  of  5,7  per  cent  of  the  pay  I'oll  as  a 
promiuni  foi  a  ;)oHcy  covering  the  risks,  in  conformity  to  pro- 
visions of  the  Workmen's  ("ompensa!  ion  Act.     This  would 
have  amounted  to  .S'iTiiti.OO  a  monlli.      As  a  result   of  the 
installation  of  safety  a])phances  and   inten-i\e  educational 
campaigns  and  tin  .-election  of  risks  t  hioujih  medical  examina- 
tions  of   those   seekinj^   employment.  STO'.K'.tti  was   {)aid    in 
insurance  i)remium<  for  ten  months  and    twenty-five  days.-' 
Standards  for  In.urance  Carrier.  -—  All  forms  of  insur.ance 
must   he  jud^:ed   Upon  t ln ■  b.i- i- of  sK'iiri'lij,  Cd.^t,  and  scrricf. 
Self-insuiance  is  n  ally  non-in-urance.  >ince  theic  is  no  set 
reserve    fund.     .Mutual    in-urai'ce    carriers     will     pi'ohahly 
survive  in  the  field  of  aci'ident   insurance,  hut   the  effect   oi 
('om])ens;ition  thu-  far  indicates  a  u:i-adua!  drift  in  the  direc- 
tion  of   tlie   >tron,L;;e-t    and   most    eilicieutly   manaijed   st(/ck 
and    mutual    com|)anies.      I'o  date,  the    monopnli-tic  State 
funds,  with  few  (  xcepiions,  have  not  -ucceeded  in  materially 
outtiny:  tiie  co-t  of  insurance,  hut   h.ive  in  com])etitic)n  with 
|)rivate  companies  hccn  very  helpful.      It  is  likely  that   the 
imitual  a-sociation  and  the  Stat    t'und  will  he  allowed  to  com- 
pete.    Whatever   may   lie   the   ultimate   develoj)ment ,   it    is 
ri  :i-onal)le  to  expect  that  induct  r,\-  will  in-i-t  uiM>n  *  he  nicjitcst 
securitv  and  the  i)c-.t  .-.er\ice  at  tli(   mininnnu  cos',  to  itself.-'-' 


Oil)  .\(;k  Tnsi  it\\(  k.  ok  PKNsniNs 

Extent  of  Old  Age  Dependency.    -  Old  a(ie  is  inevitable 

and  not  an  emerj-  ;cy,  iml  tlie  fact  remains  that  there  is  a 
deiMiidenI  population  ('».")  ye.irs  tif  a^i'  and  ovei ,  who  either 
l>e(  lu-e  of  low  wa^;c-^,  mi.-fortuiic  sit  one  >ort  oj-  another,  or 
individu.d  -iiortconiinti;<,  have  lieen  unalile  to  provide  for 
the  latter  year-  tif  their  lives.      .Xj. proximately    !  ,'J.')(),(K«)  of 


31U  THE    HUMAN    FAC'TOli    IN'    INDU  ''^UY 


t'lic  pooplo  of  the  Ui  States  ,il)iivr  ti.)  ycnrs  of  ;m;c  are 

(l('i)cn(lt'iit  upon  j)iil'  >)!■  ])rivati'  charity  to  the  aiiioiiiit  of 
alMuit  Sl'oO, ()()(), 000  annually,  thie  piTxni  in  i'-l  of  our 
watcc  tamers  I'cache-  tin  a^e  of  (io  in  \\an(.  In  the  words 
of  Lee  Wellintf  S(iuier,  "  [Jundred-  "I  thou>and<  nf  working 
])eople  are  already  aeiuss  the  hordi  r  inln  helple>>  and  hope- 
less superannuation,  tens  and  hundred-  ot  thousands  inor''  are 
now  pressing  the  horder  line,  and  the  ureat  mass  of  Ainerieaii 
woi'kiim  |ieiiple  are  lookinii;  dnun  the  \i>ta  of  the  yeai's  to 
possible  dependence  u])on  charity  durini/;  llaii-  la-t  few  years 
on  earlli:  with  million-  nf  money  heinu:  s|)ent  annually  for 
th.  relief  (if  this  condilinn  and  x'ei'y  hitle  im  it<  pn-vention. 
Certainly  the  -ild  aiie  dependency  iiiolileni  i<  wnrthy  of  the 
ine-;t  sei'ious  consideraliiiii  and  determined  ai'tion.'" -' 
Causes  of  Old  Age  Dependency.       I'lofe-soi   I)e\ine  and 

other  authorities  ;itt  lihute  t  he  larp'-t  part  ef  old  ;iii,e  depend- 
ency to  mi-fortune.  A.  (I.  Warnei-  |)l;ic(--  t  hi-  at  72  per  cent 
while  the  .Massachusetts  ( '(imini--i(iii  en  ('Id  .\jie  Pen-ions, 
Annuities  .and  ln-\uanee  reports  th.il  ti'l.j  ji.r  cei,t  of  the  old 
aiie  dej)endency  i<  due  Id  e\tr:i  e\|)en>e-  mi  .leedinit  ef  sick- 
ness .'ind  einei'jiencie-.  J').  I  pi  r  ceiil  i-  dui'  III  liu-iiie-<  l.iilures 
and  had  in\'  ~tnient<.  '.',.'2  \)ry  cent  dm'  to  tin',  le;i\'inLC  only 
l\.'.\  |)er  ceni  of  |)au])eri-m  caii-ed  li\  in!'  mjier.anee,  ext  ra\a- 
ganee  and  fiauii.  ' 

''The  ildctrine  <if  thrill  .  .  .  i-  u-u:dl\  recei\cd  hy  the 
workimiman  willi  -cant  eourtc  >y.  !!'■  admit-  it-  de-iratiility 
and  lonsis  foi  I  he  iipporl  unit  \  to  .aci'ept  it,  hut  in  hi- present 
<'ondition  it  i-  lieyond  h.im."  '•  The  erdinar\'  ri-k  in  li\int, 
the  iiieiiualil  ie-  in  lieriiMiie  ;ind  (ippciri'inily  :imiinLi  nieii, 
and  the  ;disence  i.'f  .■Ml  .idetiuate  minimum  \\;ej,e  m.ake  it, 
ilillicult  to  pr(i\ide  for  old  a^e.  \'n  matter  Imu  much  :.s 
clone  to  ])reveni  premat  lire  -upeiaiuiuaiiiai  liy  mure  adeipiato 
provision  tni  iIm'  Im  .dth  of  wnRe  earners  hy  vocational  truid- 
ance  and  li\'  -ecmim:  -pecial  work  for  old  men.  ihe  |)|-oli|eni 
of  superannual  lea  v\  ill  -till  rem.iin       Tleie  will   -till   lie   the 


IXSUR-WCK,   SAVIXr.S,    AND    L(  )AXS 


311 


mail  who  has  Ix'cn  incinalurcly  >iii)('i'aniiuaicil  hy  pxfcssive 
physical  strain,  >ickiicss  or  acculcnt ,  and  thrrc  will  always  be 
the  man  who  i-  unahic  to  work  liccaust'  he  is  too  old. 

Methods  of  Providing  Old  Age  Insurance.  Thr  prin- 
{•il)lc  of  in>urancf  i>  ai)plicat>lf  to  the  continficncy  of  old 
ajic  in  the  same  way  as  to  the  various  other  contingencies 
to  which  it  i-  ajjplicd.  The  diflicailties  of  provision  for  old 
a.u'c  and  the  micertainly  of  attaininu  it  make  it  impra'M- 
ca!>le  for  the  indi\idiial  to  cany  hi-  ovvn  lisk.  \'arious 
methods  of  ai)pl\ini:  the  in-nrani'''  prineijile  to  the  hazards 
of  superannuation  ha\-e  ineii  developed.  One  ot  four 
methods  mav  tie  choMii. 


11 


(1)  \'()liint;ir\-  annmt\-  system, 

(2)  I'elisioii  paid  li>    inuliial  as-iM-ial ion  nr  iii(hi^*ry. 
i'.i)  {'tiiiipulsiiry  <  (Piiiriliiil(ir\  elil  ai;e  insurance  s\    leiii. 
(4)  Service  pensions  paid  Ihruuuli  taxation. 


Voluntary   Annuities.       Anmiitie-   an-  sold  l)y  insuranco 

companies  a-  a  liu-iiie>-  pro|)osition  in  the  form  ol  ih>ferred 
annuities.  ordinar\  twenty-year  endowment  iiolicies,  in- 
dustrial twenty-year  endowment  |)olicie-.  ami  varioii-  other 
schemes  w  liicli  cover  I  lie  joint  cont  in<;encie>  of  death  and 
old  aiie.  Xotwithstandiufi  the  efforts  of  the  insurance 
comi)anies  to  jxipulaiize  tin-  method  of  providing:;  for  old 
a^e.  \<'r\-  few  of  tin  workim;  clas>  are  taking:  advantajje  of 
the  opportunities  otfered.  Thr  reason  for  thi>  is  that  the 
nMurn-  are  too  small  and  too  remote  to  stimulate  tlie  in- 
dividual to  the  nece->.aiv  -elf-dcnia'  and  self->acriiice.  'I'he 
in-urance  compani-  -  have  de\  i-ed  a  |)lan  of  extendinn  ^roup 
ill-Uiailce  to  (  o\  I  r  old  ;ure,  liv  makiim  life  policies  i)a>al>Ie 
in  ain;uitie>  lie}:innin;i  at  atre  Cid  <tv  (1.").  If  policies  can  he 
!>.-ued  to  groups  of  at  hast  one  hundi'd  people  the  In  nefit 
for  the  same  premium  can  he  increa-i<l  :'A)  per  cent. 

In     Ma--aehu-(ll--    thr    S;i\in!i-    l^ank    Insur.ance    .\ct    of 
r.107    i,-   an   .attempt    to   furni-ii   old     ;a,e   annuities   to   wat'c 


312 


Tin-:  jir.MAx  kactor  ix  ixdi-stry 


workers  at  the  lowost  jiossiMc  rosl.  Wisconsin  is  the  only 
other  State  providing  for  tlie  sale  of  insurance^  by  the  Slate. 
This  law  was  passed  in  1911.  Neither  in  Massachusetts 
nor  in  Wisconsin  hav(>  any  consideralih^  numl)er  of  people 
availed  themselves  of  the  State  insurance  schemes. 

The  failure  of  the  numerous  attemjiis  to  coml)ine  old  age 
pensions  witli  life  insurance  proves  tliat  people  do  not  vohin- 
tarily  purchase  -nninti(>s.  luigland  has  had  the  same  experi- 
ence. After  40  years  only  a  neglijiilile  nunii)er  of  persons  an- 
nually purchase  annuities  undertlie  ])ost-olfice  plan,  hut  even 
thougii  some  l)ett(M- plan  !)e  worked  out,  there  should  always 
be  a  pkan  for  the  voluntary  purchase  of  annuities  for  those 
who  wish  to  maki'  such  provision. 

Mutual  Associations.  -  .lu-l  as  inulual  a>socialions  have 
made  efforts  to  meet  the  other  contingencies  which  come 
into  a  wage  earner's  life,  so  liave  they  attemi)ted  to  make 
some  provision  foi- old  ;ige.  I'ptt,  1012  ;unong  literally  thou- 
sands of  labor  unions,  —  national,  international,  and  local 
—  only  1.3  had  even  .attempted  any  provision  for  the  relief 
of  their  aged  members.  Tlii<  statement,  based  upon  the 
twenty-third  anmi.al  report  of  the  ("ommissicmer  of  Lal)or 
for  1908  on  "Workmen's  Insurance  and  Benefit  Funds  in 
the  United  States,"  shows  how  inade(iu;itely  labor  union.s 
are  coping  with  the  i)roblem  of  old  ag(\  Moreov(T,  such 
provisions  as  are  m.ade  are  without  regard  to  the  requirements 
of  actuarial  : cienct^.'-'' 

Fraternal  Insurance.  —  Of  the  1S2  fraternal  benefit 
societiis  of  ;i  general  or  nalioii.'d  character  in  the  United 
States  there  are  42  which  pnnni-e  old  age  benefits,  'i'he 
provision  is  usually  in  the  forni  <if  ,ap,nuitie<  begiiuiing  at  lh(> 
age  of  70,  which  is  after  old  age  has  alre.ady  set  in.  These 
socir'ii's  are  aNo  often  actuari.aliy  unsound,  the  preniiums 
being  in;ide(|u;i1e  even  for  death  benefits.  It  may  thus  b(> 
concluded  Ih.it    fraternal  societies   have   not    done   imich  to 

relieve  iilil   Mirc  (li>wiiilriic\- 


HnSURAXck,  savixcjs,  and  loans 


313 


Employes'  Benefit  Association.  —  Plans  for  meet  ins  the 
prohlcn-.  of  superannuation  from  witliin  industry  n(>arly 
always  provide  for  out-and-out  service  jiensions,  with  nu 
eontrihution  from  the  employe.  Among  IGl  Employes' 
Benefit  Associations  only  5  provided  superannuation  bene- 
fits. Of  these  3  are  pension  funds  maintained  entirely  hy 
the  establislmient  and  2  a  e  managed  and  supported  jointly.' 
Service  Pensions  Preferred.  —  There  are  many  reasons 
why  (>mployers  as  well  as  employes  i)ref(T  straight  service 
pensions  for  wage  earners  instead  of  pension  funds  with 
contributions  by  employes.  The  impermanence  of  the 
wage  earner's  employment  and  the  strenuous  objection  of 
the  workingman  make  any  eontril)utory  scheme  inadvis- 
able. .\ny  deductions  from  wages  restrict  th(>  litxTty  of 
the  (>mploye.  He  nnisl  submit  to  ttu>  will  of  his  employer 
or  los(>  his  contriliutions  to  the  pension  fund.  Another 
objection  of  the  wage  earner  is  that  the  deduction  reduces  his 
wages  and  his  standard  of  living,  and  he  denovmces  the  .sys- 
tem as  un-American.  This  feeling  may  be  the  result  of  an 
individualistic  philosophy,  but  whatever  the  reason  it  pre- 
vails and  must  l)e  recognized. 

Extent  of  Employer's  Service  Pensions.  —  Of  all  the 
great  industrial  employments  none  wears  men  out  more 
(juickly  nor  subjects  them  to  great(-r  hazard  than  transporta- 
tion. In  this  and  a  few  other  industries,  such  as  navigation 
and  v<n  ig,  wliere  hazard  is  great  and  strenuous  work  makes 
premature  old  age  a  common  occurrenci',  we  find  a  few 
pension  schemes.  A  surv(\v  of  transportation  companies 
in  the  United  States  by  Lee  .\.  Scpiier,  i)ublished  in  1912, 
shows  that  only  a  few  more  than  a  score  of  such  companies 
have  adopted  any  plan  of  com]iensation  for  their  old  and 
worn-out  employes.  Mr.  Squier  extended  his  investigation 
to  over  a  thousand  of  the  important  industrial  corporations 
of  this  country,  only  about  thirty  "f  which  reported  any 
«xistiue   scheme   of    relief    for   the   worn-out    worker.'''      A 


314 


THE    HUMAN    FACTOR    l.V    INDUSTRY 


study  made  by  the  National  Civic  Federation  under  tlie  di- 
rection of  the  ("oinniission  on  Pensions  of  New  York  City 
and  puhlisiied  in  1!)1(),  <iives  ni)i)r<iyMn:'tely  the  same  re- 
sult. A  list  of  ,").")  industrial  peiisic  n  scl.eine^.  including 
thosein  the  railroads,  is  jriven  as  a  n^sult  of  thi>  invest ijr;u ion, 
in  which  an  effort  was  made  to  include  all  pension  plans  then 
in  existence.  In  'M  of  the  plans  invi -tipated,  the  emi)loyer 
assumes  the  entiic  burden,  only  (>  are  on  tlie  contiihutory 
plan,  and  no  data  are  p-iven  for  15  cotn])aniis.-" 

Uniformity  of  Pension  Plans.  —  There  is  a  great  uni- 
formity of  pension  i)laii-  witliin  industry.  Piactically  all 
are  based  on  earnings  (anothei-  way  <if  ^aying,  value  of  the 
em.ploy(>)  and  the  percentages,  with  notalile  excei)tions, 
closely  appi'oxiinate  each  othei-.  Tlieic  are  some  liberal 
percentages  of  salaiies  allowed  liut  tlicse  are  usually  offset 
by  prerequisites  as  to  years  of  <ei\i('e. 

Th(>  pension  system  established  in  l!)i;{  i)y  the  .\merican 
Telephone  :ind  Telegraph  Company  U<v  its  employes  may  be 
quoted  as  a  typical  example  of  fiee  indu-(  lial  pension  plans. -'^ 
The  employes  of  the  company  ai'e  (hxided  into  three  classes, 
each  of  which  rec(  ives  pensions  ((luivalent  to  1  j)er  cent 
of  till'  annual  average  pay  for  ten  years,  for  each  year  of  serv- 
ice. 

Cl.ass  a.  Ma\  lie  retired  eiiher  at  llnir  mvii  re(iiiesl  oral  the  dis- 
oretion  nf  til,.  ( •(Miiiiiitl<'r.  This  class  consists  n(  (in,>l<)\('s  whose 
toriii  (if  (Miipliiyiiiciil  has  hceii  20  years  or  riKirc  and  wIid  have  reached 
the  af^c  of  <>()    females  ."),")!. 

Class  B.  May  he  retired  uii  peii^ieii  eiily  upon  a|)proval  of 
Prosidcnt  or  Viie-IVesideiit.  This  .lass  consists  of  tlie  eini'.Ioyes 
whoso  term  ol'  employment  has  lioeii  2.")  years  or  more  and  who  have 
ronchcd  the  ai,'e  of  rh>  {female  ."lOi. 

Class  ('.  M;iy  l.(.  retired  on  pension  only  njton  ap|)roval  of 
President  or  Xice-I're'^ident .  'I  :,l~  cI.k^  <.on-i«t<  of  emjiloyos  whose 
tfrrn  of  enipioynieiit   ha-^  lieen  ilO  years  or  more 

A'o^  .   Tlie  mit.imiim  pcn^^^ion  will  he  .'?20  a  month. 

Disilhilll  1/    I'l  11  •:i(llis  : 

oaiiio  ii>  ioi  oiii  a^-e,  t,'r:iiiieii  at  any  aL;e  alter  l.i  years  of  .<(^i  .•■•«, 


INSURANCE,   SAVINGS,   AND   LOANS 


315 


Requirements  of  an  Employer's  Service  Pension.  —  If 

omployrrs  wisli  to  secure  the  Ijeneiicial  results  of  a  pension 
plan  and  not  do  an  injustice  to  their  employes,  certain 
standards  will  have  to  \>v  met.  If  payment  of  pensions  is 
granted,  it  should  l>e  assured  by  the  creation  of  an  adt  uate 
fund  or  In'  the  (Mnjiloyer's  guaranty,  or  by  both.  In  the 
event  of  the  discontinuance  of  the  service  pension  plan, 
provision  should  be  made  for  the  payment  of  pensions  al- 
ready granted,  preferal)ly  by  purchasing  annuity  policies 
in  a  reliable  insurance  company.  Some  employers  contrib- 
ute percentage  on  wages  to  the  fund  as  services  arc  ren- 
dered, but  this  imi)lies  th;it  some  compensation  is  being 
withheld,  so  is  not  popular.  The  most  common  method 
is  for  tlie  em[)loyer  to  make  contributions  as  the  money  is 
recjuired.-'^ 

Separation  of  Invalidity  Insurance  from  Old  Age  Pensions. 
—  Thirty-three  of  the  fifty-five  pension  sj'stems  studied 
by  the  National  Civic  I'lnleration  include  disability  pen- 
sions.-' The  majority  may  be  granted  at  ;iny  age,  but 
u.sually  a  prerequisite  number  of  years'  service  is  .stipulated. 
This  brings  up  the  (luestion  as  to  whether  an  old  age  pension 
sy>tem  should  include  a  disability  clause  to  provide  for 
those  who  must  retire  eaily  in  life  because  of  invalidity,  or 
whether  this  should  be  included  under  the  .sickness  in.suranre 
scheme.  It  is  the  opinion  of  M.  ]\I.  Dawson  that  service 
pensions  ])rovided  by  the  (Muployer  are  w(*lcome  only  when 
there  is  no  other  available  provision,  and  that  invalidity 
l)enefits  should  be  jjrovided  by  joint  contribution  under 
the  sickness  insurance  sciieme.-'*  This  etuibles  a  relatively 
high  iH'nsion  age,  with  rctiremi^it  rigidly  enforced  imless 
the  service  of  the  employ(>  is  exceptionally  valu.able. 

Inadequacy  of  Pension  Scheme  within  Industry.  —  Even 
though  it  be  decided  lliat  old  ag(>  is  an  industrial  probl(>m 
and  industry  should  be  com|»elled  to  bear  tlie  lunden  of  its 


ri 


ii 


.i;n;,.,.i(;.,.. 


316 


THE    HUMAN    FACTCHi    IN    INDUSTRY 


the  advantages.  Few  industries  have  i)een  wiUing  or  able 
to  develop  any  satisfactory  scheme.  Corporation  pension 
schemes  provide  for  the  better  class  of  mechanics  and  other 
well-paid  laborers.  They  do  not  reach  the  great  mass  of 
common  day-l;ii)or(Ts.  Any  p(>nsion  scheme  for  employes 
with  one  eori)ora(ion  as  the  unit  is  dangerous.  There  are 
too  many  firms  dissolved  to  make  tliis  safe  .\.nd  the  vari- 
ous investigations  show  that  no  adecjuate  provision  is  made 
by  trade  unions  or  fraternal  societies. 

Compulsory  Contributory  Scheme.  —  Compulsory  con- 
tril)Utory  insurance  has  l)eei  suggested  as  a  way  of  meet- 
ing the  problem  of  old  age,  but  tli(>  difliculties  appear  in- 
surmountal)le.  The  present  generation  of  -nle  would 
not  be  benefited.  X  complicated  system  of  accounts  with 
every  employed  person  would  lie  necessary,  and  with  a  con- 
stantly shifting  population  this  would  be  impossil)!e,  and 
still  all  those  who  are  not  wage  earners  would  remain  unpro- 
vided for. 

Service  Pensions  Paid  through  Taxation.  —  Squier,  who 
has  made  an  impartial  and  thorougli  study  of  the  {jroblem 
in  all  its  phases,  believ(>s  tJiat  the  stat(>  must  i)rovide  a  sys- 
tem of  service  pensions  for  its  old  and  worn-out  citizens. 
According  to  him.  voluntary  provisions,  as  industrial  con- 
ditions now  obtaining  clearly  manifest,  are  imjKissible.'^^ 

Problem  of  Old  Man  in  Industry.  —  Systems  of  state  old 
age  pensions  exist  in  (Ireat  Britain,  I'rance,  Australia, 
New  Zealand,  Dmunark,  and  Iceland.  It  is  possilile  that  in 
the  United  States  tlie  Statics  may  ultimately  make  pro^'i- 
sion  for  tli(>  burden  of  old  nm-.  In  the  meantime  th(>  jirob- 
lem  of  the  old  man  in  industry  remains.  It  is  to  the  ad- 
vantage of  the  employer  to  facilitate  the  retirement  of  the 
aged  worker.  He  i>  ,i  li;indicap  to  industry:  his  retention 
in  active  employment  after  he  has  p.assed  his  limit  of  ef- 
ficiency ine.ans  .in  e<'onomic  w.aste  to  the  employer,  yet  the 
CliSliii^sai  oi   .■>uiii  ;i    wdikci    uiiiuiui    ;.iiy   iinaiiciai  iHovisiou 


INSURANCE,  SAVINGS,  AND   LOANS 


317 


for  the  rost  of  his  life  is  an  injustico-'-^  Thv  motives  iindor- 
lying  the  cstaliUshinent  of  a  pension  scheme  are  twofold: 
humanitarian  and  economic.  The  employer  with  any  hu- 
man sympathy  cannot  dismiss  an  old  yet  fa  iful  employe 
without  any  means  of  support.  .V  pension  scheme  allows 
the  (-limination  of  those  too  old  to  work  and  promotes 
contentment  and  loyalty. 

Insurance  the  Method  of  Eliminating  "  Passing  the 
Hat."  — That  insurance  is  the  method  to  be  used  to  elimi- 
nate dread  of  destitution  and  "  passing  the  hat  "  is  no 
longer  a  disputed  (luestion.  Rut  should  insurance  against 
the  economic  uncertainties  of  a  wage  earner's  life  be  made 
compulsory  for  all  adults,  for  certain  groups,  or  voluntary? 
And  should  this  insurance  be  carried  by  the  State,  private 
insurance  companies,  or  mutual  societies,  or  by  all  thr(>e  in 
competition?  Which  of  the  numerous  c()ml)inations  of 
these  methods  conforms  to  the  ideals  and  philosophy  of  the 
United  States'.'  It  shoul<l  be  based  on  existing  American 
conditions  and  afford  room  for  private  initiative  in  working 
out  the  d(>tails. 

In  additiim  to  the  various  insurance  and  pension  schemes, 
industry  has  r.ied  to  encourage  the  employe  to  be  thrifty 
by  inaugurating  savings  plans  and  stock  ownership  schemes. 


ii 


Savings  .\nd  Loax  Plans 

Problem  of  Saving.  —  Thrift  and  saving  have  been  sug- 
gested as  a  sui)stitute  for  insurance,  but  in  order  to  meet 
future  expenditure  must  have  time  to  do  so,  while  he 
who  insuivs  himself  is  protected  from  tlu^  moment  he 
takes  out  th.>  policy.  American  peoph^  have  been  called 
thriftless;  in  so  far  as  thrift  implies  cons<Mva(i()n  of  re- 
sources and  elimination  <if  wasti"  no  one  would  deny  the 
value  of  instilling  thrift  into  (he  minds  of  the  American 
people,  but  il  it  is  given  the  meaning  oi  individual  ^avlil^  it 


318 


THE    HUMAN    FACTOR    IX    INDUSTRY 


implies  surplus  in  the  wa^c  eanici's  liudgi't.  This  is  not 
always  the  case,  and  excessive  tlii''''t  may  do  jiositive  harm 
in  lowering  the  standard  of  life.  A  study  recently  com- 
pleted by  the  Uniti'd  States  Bureau  of  Labor  Statistics 
shows  that  during  the  intci'val  1007 -1 9! S  wages  increased 
48  per  cent,  while  ictail  prices  of  food  increased  105  per 
rent.'"'  It  is  tlu.s  no  wonder  that  the  wage  earner  finds  it 
difficult  to  save  and  the  problem  of  emergencies  l)ecomes 
a  .serious  one. 

Present  Provision  for  Savings  and  Loans.  —  Various 
efforts  have  been  made  to  rescue  the  wage  earner  from  his 
dilenuna,  to  pnjvide  m(>ans  for  oi'dinary  and  emergency  sav- 
ings and  loans  foi-  home  liuilding.  The  s;ivings  l)ank  will 
accept  his  small  savings.  i)uildirig  and  loan  societies  en- 
courage home  owning,  and  various  forms  of  cooperative 
credit  have  ari.-en  to  provide  him  with  loans  in  case  of  emer- 
gency and  thus  to  do  away  witii  the  loan-shark  evil. 

Building  and  Loan  Associations.  —  The  most  important 
contribution  of  tlie  United  States  to  the  c<)oi)erative  credit 
movement  is  the  building  and  loan  association.  In  .\ugust, 
1913,  there  were  CrJOO  local  building  and  loan  associations, 
with  a  total  meml)ershi|)  of  more  than  2. .")()(). 000.  These  as- 
sociations pioviile  opportunity  for  home  l)uildingand  for  long- 
time loans  with  real  estate  or  mortgage^  securities,  but  they 
do  not  supply  the  need  for  the  short-tim(>  remecjia'  loan." 
Other  foi;!:s  of  cixiperative  cr<'dit  have  therefore  been  de- 
veiopeil. 

Company  Associations.  —  By  mt  ans  of  con\pany  savings 
and  loan  as.^^ociations  employei's  have  encouraged  ordinary 
savings  and  eliminated  the  loan-siiaik  with  the  worry  and 
loss  of  ({hciency  among  employes  consequent  upon  deal- 
ings with  him. 

Variations  in  Plans.  -  \  study  made  by  th(>  National 
Association  of  ( 'oipor'atioti  Schodls  in  1917  gives  a  list  of  (H 
companies   whicli   have  ^ome  form  of  cooperative  savings 


IX  'T[iA\CK,  SAVINGS,   AND   LOANS 


319 


plan.  The  plans  \ary  widely  in  the  foUowint^  features: 
interest  return  on  savings  ;  limitalion  of  sums  to  be  loaned  ; 
interest  ('har{j;ed  for  sueh  loans;  and  the  share  allotted  to 
the  employes  in  tlie  manaf2;enient  of  the  associations.''- 

Managed  by  Employer.  ---  The  purpose  of  the  New  York 
Edison  Company's  Savings  and  Loan  Association  is  two- 
fold—  to  (MicouraKc  savinp;  atui  iiome  owning.  The  com- 
pany assumes  all  expenses,  paying  I-o  per  cent  interest  on 
savings,  and  making  loans  foi'  home  owning  pur[)oses  to  80 
per  cent  of  the  projvily  value,  charging  G  per  cent  interest. 

Managed  by  Employes.  --  Tlu"  Savings  and  Loan  Bureau 
of  \MUiam  Filene  Sons'  ("om])an>.  Boston,  Ma>s.,  is  under 
the  direction  of  the  Cooperative  A.ssociation  of  the  em- 
ployes. The  ofTicers  in  cliaige  are  elected  by  members 
of  tlie  Co()perative  .\ssociat ion.  lint  t  he  company  guarantees 
against  losses  and  pays  5  pi  r  cent  int(>rest  on  savings.  A 
legal  note  must  be  given  for  sums  loaned  of  more  than 
•SI  0.00. 

Employer's  Contributions.  —  The  Metropolitan  Staff  Sav- 
ings Fund  of  the  M(>tropolitan  Life  Insurance  Company, 
New  York  City,  is  unicjue.  The  company  contributts  half 
as  much  a-<  the  employe  saves.  Any  employe,  after  jno 
year  of  service*,  whose  earnings  are  not  in  excess  of  §3000  a 
year  may  be  a  depositor  in  the  fund,  but  no  employe  may 
deposit  in  one  year  more  than  .">  per  cent  of  his  earnings. 
The  company's  deposits  may  be  ilrawn  out  in  the  event 
of  the  ilepositor's  death  or  permanent  incapacity,  or  by 
vote  of  the  trustees  in  the  case  of  honorable  retirement 
following  twenty  y(>ars'  continuous  service.  The  em- 
ploye's deposit  may  l)e  withdrawn  at  any  time,  the  com- 
pany's contributions  standing  to  the  credit  of  the  remaining 
dejiositors.'" 

Cooperation  with  Outside  Bank.  —  In  some  cases  the  em- 
ployer selves  simply  as  an  intermediary  agent  between 
the  employe  and  a   bank.     The  Clothcraft  Shops  have  a 


l! 


;52() 


THE    HUMAN    FACTOR    IN    INDUSTRY 


ptiiiiy  hank  ;is  one  of  the  activitits  of  tho  Kmploymont 
iiiul  Service  Departiuent.  Interest  i-  paid  on  all  depositn 
over  one  dollar  iiinaininj!;  in  th(  hank  three  months  or  more. 
When  (h'posits  n-ach  SUtO  the  eini)loye  is  advised  to  transfer 
his  savinjis  to  a  icfiulai-  savinjjs  in>lit  iition.  Small  loans 
are  also  nuuh-  l)y  this  department,  hut  an  exjjlanation  of  tho 
nason  for  the  loan  is  r(>quired."  The  Ood^e  Manufactur- 
ins  Comivmy  started  a  Thrift  Chii)  as  an  ad<litional  activity 
of  the  DodKc  Relief  Association.  When  the  i)lan  was  started 
no  interest  was  paid  on  the  d(>posits,  uhicli  were  tleducted 
from  the  weekly  wajjes.  After  making  this  test  the  com- 
pany l)ep:an  paying  1  per  cent  interest  in  casli  eviTy  six 
months  throiujh  the  coopcnition  nf  a  haul:.  The  amount  of 
weekly  deposits  douhled  almost  innnediately.^'  In  OctoixT, 
1917,  one  third  of  the  employes  of  the  comi)a!ty  were  mem- 
bers of  the  Thrift  Clul-.  The  company  believes  that  it  has 
in  this  way  proved  to  the  men  that  it  was  chietiy  careless- 
ness and  not  inadecjua^e  wages  which  formerly  jireventod 
them  from  saviiiK. 

Stock-selling  Plans.—  .\nother  method  )'y  which  cor- 
porations have  endeavored  to  promote  thrift  and  industrial 
peace  is  by  tiie  sale  of  stock  of  the  company  to  its  employes. 
Some  of  these  plan^  are  in-eparably  connected  with  a  protit- 
sharingplan.  TheS(  ars  Hoebuck  Comp.any  ha- devised  a  com- 
bination stock-purcha-ing  and  profit-sharing  pl.ni,  in  which 
the  company  contributes  ">  per  cent  of  the  net  earnings  and 
the  employe  depo>-its  .'j  per  cent  of  liis  salary,  which  fund 
is  invested  in  stock  of  Se,'ir>  Hi^ebuck  Company.  .\  de- 
positor who  lias  completed  ten  years  of  servii'c  will  lie  en- 
titled to  withdr.'iw  .'ill  tlie  money  credited  to  his  account, 
including  ttn'  company's  contriluitions.  If  he  has  M^rved 
le<s  than  ten  year^  he  can  only  withdraw  his  contributions 
plus  inleresi  ;it  .">  pei-  ceiil.'  Some  coi'porations,  ^ucli  as 
the  I'lnted  States  Steel  Corporation  and  the  liitrrnational 
Harvester  Company,  Lave  stuck-i)urcha.->e  [)lan>  h)r  the  rank 


iNSUR.wn;,  sAVi\(is,  and  loans 


321 


;in(i  filo.  In  mo;:t  of  these  plans  the  employes  are  offered 
tlie  o|)portunity  to  j)urehase  the  >t()ck  upon  espiH'ially  ad- 
vantap;(M)us  terms,  paying  for  it  in  installments.  ( )n  May  28, 
1919,  the  Kastinan  Kmlak  (  omiiany  offered  to  its  employes 
twenty  tliousand  siiares  at  jiar  value  of  SlOO  per  share, 
purchasable  in  installments.  The  niarki't,  value  at  that  time 
was  something  over  S.JT').  The  employe  is  not  allowed  to 
sell  his  stock  for  five  years,  but  if  In  leaves  the  company  he 
receives  par  value,  or  the  amount  Ik-  has  ])aid.  The  inter- 
ests of  the  employes  are  safeguardt-d  by  ecjual  representati(jn 
upon  committees  formed  to  deal  with  all  such  matters  im- 
partially.''' 

Credit  Unions.  Objects.  —  .\  comparatively  new  do. 
velopment  of  the  remedial  loan  movement  in  this  country 
is  that  of  the  f'redit  I'nion,  This  form  tif  c()()])erativv? 
credit  is  known  in  ( Jermany  as  the  Cooperative  Credit 
.\ssociation,  in  Ireland  as  the  Credii  Society,  in  Italy  and 
Canad:i  as  the  P<'oiile's  Ilmk.  Its  otijecls  are  threefold: 
(1)  To  encom'ag''  thi'ift  by  ])rovi(linj:  a  safe  method  for 
memlxTs  to  inve-t  savinjis.  (2)  To  provide  a  means 
whereliy  members  can  borrow  at  a  reasonable  rate  of  in- 
ti'rest.  (;?)  To  tiain  meml)ers  in  busines>  methods  and 
self-povernment  .^^ 

Organization.  The  Credit  Tiiion  is  a  cooi)er;itive  or- 
gaiiization  which  may  be  us( ,!  as  a  depository  for  savings 
and  will  in  (urn  extend  credit  to  a  man  with  his  char- 
acter and  pergonal  worth  as  security.  The  prin(i])les  of 
cndii  unionism  are:  (\)  JMiualilv.  All  member^  -hare 
r(|iiailv  in  privileges  an!  ratably  in  profits.  ('2^  Democ- 
racy. The  one-nian-one-vote  priiicijih'  is  fundiimeiital. 
llach  member  has  but  oni'  vote  irrespective  of  the  number 
of  shnres  he  m.ay  hold. 

Membership  ,\nv  niunber  of  persons  m;iy  combine 
to  orp;ani7e  a  ( 'rcdit  \  'nion.  in  ;i  city,  town,  or  rural  commu- 
nity.    While   the  mnnbers  of  the  grouj)  should  assume  the 


II 
I 


322 


Till-;    (ilMAN    lACTOK    IN'    l\Di:.STKY 


ropponsihility  it  is  iinportiiiil  that  the  State  rcfiulatc  Credit 
Tnions  to  make  sure  that  they  arc  sate.  Massachusetts  was 
the  first  State  to  pass  such  a  law.  This  was  in  UtOi),  and 
ninoe  lliat  time  seven  other  States  nave  followed  suit.  Tlic 
basis  of  ineniliership  in  a  ( 'ie<lii  Inidii  inu>t  lie  some  common 
bond  or  community  of  interest,  it  may  he  common  occu])a- 
tion,  ernpioyini'iit  by  the  same  estai>!ishment .  or  membership 
in  the  same  church,  club,  Indue,  labor  union,  or  ollx'r  or- 
ganization. In  riu'al  conununities  liie  church  parish,  school 
district, or  local  f:;ranKe  furnishes  a  satisfactory  fo>mdation 
for  membershi|).  Larjie  numbers  of  men  employed  in  one 
ostal)lishinent  or  organization  are  u.--u;'.lly  divided  into 
departmental  or  divi-iona!  LMoups  These  trroups  m;iy 
be  taken  as  the  b.isic  utiits  for  the  nrjianization  of  ("reclit 
Unions.  This  is  true  of  deparfiiient  stores,  railroads,  and 
most  establishments  iti  which  larne  luimbers  .are  einj)loved. 
These  firou|)s  !n:iy  lie  federated  to  uood  ad\;uita^(',  but  the 
individual  Credit  rnion  should  imt  be  so  laiiic  as  to  become 
unuieldy.     Th(>  smallest  work.ible  unit  is  atiout  twenty-five. 

Security  for  Loans.  Onlinaiily  the  security  that  ,i 
Credit  I'liion  demands  for  lo.aiis  is  ;i  promissory  note  <>*"  the 
borrower  with  one  or  more  indorsements,  sui)pleinenteil 
by  ;i  lien  upoii  the  boirowa's  sh.iies  .md  deposit-  in  the 
Credit  I'nion.  The  re(|uir(MneMt  'f  indorsements  may  be 
waived  in  some  cases  if  the  loan  is  for  ;i  sni.dl  .iniount. 
Larue  lo.iiis  may  .aUo  be  m.ade  to  memixas  upon  seiauity 
or  m<ir1^aue  of  real  or  jyersoiial  property,  but  unless  tli(< 
Credit  I'liioii  !i;is  .in  abundaiiee  (>f  fund-,  preference  should 
be  u:i\eii  to  til  •  sniallei-  loans. 

Rates  of  Inte/est.  The  i:ite  of  iiitere--t  oii  loans  sliould 
.•ijipro\im.ite  as  nearly  .as  possible  the  batdvinu  lale  of  inter- 
est, in  N'eu  ^'ork  the  m,i\ininui  rale  wliieli  may  be  chart'cd 
IS  I'J  per-  cent  pel  aiimim  '{'he  rate  ol  inter(>st  p.iid  on 
deposit-  iiia\'  be  \.iii.ible  ;itid  should  lie  li\ed  at  reiiular 
inlcav.als.      It    .-hould    not,    however,  exceed    by   more    than 


INSUKANCi:,   SAVINGS,    AND    LOANS 


323 


1  pcT  cciil  jior  luiiiuiii  the  rate  paid  by  the  savint^s  banks 
in  the  vicinity.  Deposits  sliould  diaw  interest  fforn  the 
be^inniny;  of  each  ealendar  nunith,  but  interest  should  be 
paid  (juarterly.^i 

The  Credit  Union  Primer,  eoinpiled  Ijy  Arthur  H.  Ham 
:iiid  Leonard  ('..  Holiinsoti  and  pubbshed  by  the  Remedial 
Loan  Division  of  tlie  Russell  Sai^e  Foundation,  frives  in- 
struction, by-laws,  forms,  and  rccoi'ds  to  serve  as  guides 
to  groups  desiring  to  form  Credit  I'liions.  This  plan  may 
serve  as  a  guide,  liut  may  be  modified  to  meet  any  set  of 
circumstances. 

Success  of  Credit  Union  with  Industrial  Group  as  Unit. 
—  That  the  ("reilit  I'liioii  witli  the  industrial  group  as  a 
unit  has  proved  successful  in  encouraging  small  savings 
and  ridding  tiie  employe  of  th(>  haiassing  influence  of  the 
loan-shaik  is  verified  l)y  statement  of  the  Postal  Telegraph 
Company  and  Mr.  Spiiiigstead  of  the  I'nited  Stales  .ap- 
praisers' Office  of  X,.\v  York.  For  years  the  employes  of 
the  Postal  Telegrai)h  Company  h.ive  iieen  paying  triliute  to 
the  !oan-sh:irk.  Tile  ( 'riMlit  ("nion  ha-  eii.iblecl  the  ojjerator 
to  maintain  his  self-respect  in  the  knowledg,' that  lie  h.as  a 
savings  accoinit  in  the  Credit  Fnioii  and  the  jrivilege  of 
borrowing  thricfrom  at  a  reason.able  rate  of  interest  for  any 
legitim,it<>  pur|)osc.  Mr.  Spriiigstead  m.dics  the  statement 
th.al  tliei-e  i-  no  (lUc-tion  of  the  '.due  of  the  ("redil  I'niou 
to  both  emjiloyer  .md  employe,  in  eliminating  the  lo.in- 
sliark  evil.  This  ("rcilit  Iriiun  was  lM^:lni/.l•d  in  IfllCi  fop 
.all  JM'ik  ral  eniployi's  in  \.  w  York  ('it;,-.  The  mcnilHiship 
ha>  now  reai'heil  I'Jdd  .md  has  recent  l\-  Ikmwi  r(>stricte(|  to 
emplo\-es  of  the  .Xppr.aisers'  Oflice,  i)ec.iuse  ;i  largei  mem- 
liership  woidd  become  unwieldy. 

Difficulty  of  Stock-sollinR  Plans.  The  lifliculty  with 
ni.any  -tock-si  lliiiu  jil  ui--  i-.  \\\a\  t!  .y  nia\  liampia  the  free- 
dom c'f  the  emploMs.  \\\y  sui  li  plan  should  be  subject 
to    two    impoitani    i|ualilication- :     (ti)   Recoming    a    stock- 


M 


324 


TIIK    HUMAN    FACTOR    IX    INDUSTRY 


hoUk-r  sliould  lie  ulisoliitcly  v(jlimt;iry;  Q))  adequate 
pi-ovisidii  >ti()iil(l  li<^  inailc  foi'  cinplovcs  leaving  tlio  com- 
pany to  ilisjxisc  iif  their  stock  without  loss.  But  oven  though 
these  rejiulat  i(in>  .nc  I'oUowcmI  tliere  i-  no  {jreat  advantage 
to  tlie  enii)loyer  :  the  ownership  of  <ine  sliart'  of  st(jck  in  a 
$1,()()0,()(M)  coi'poration  can  hardly  have  any  marked  effect 
upon  efficitMicv.  and  to  tlie  employe  the  danger  is  great. 
It  is  connnonly  estimated  th;ii  'M'^  per  cent  of  all  business 
cnterjjrises  fail.  TluM'e  ai'c  a  few  corporations  in  which 
tlu"  stock  is  comparatively  safe,  Imt  in  ;iny  event  it  is  con- 
trary to  good  business  principles  hjr  any  one  to  put  all  his 
eggs  into  one  basket. 

Combating  the  Loan-shark.  —  In  order  to  meet  emer- 
gencies the  wage  earner  lias  often  had  to  become  the'  i  *imof 
the  lo;m-shark  chaiging  from  100  to  loO  per  cent  per  amunn 
for  sm  ill  loans.  .\  service  manag(M-  of  a  Michigan  manu- 
f:ieturing  phmt  has  succeeded  in  freeing  his  men  from  loan- 
ih.'irks  by  an  ini  ire-^t  iiiii  experim(Mit .  Soon  after  accepting 
his  p,o'-ifion  he  discovered  that  in  the  neighljorhood  of  100 
of  the  euiployes  of  the  comp.iny  weic  in  tlie  clutches  of  the 
l()an-^hark.  <  >ne  m.in  had  not  dr;i,wn  his  own  salary  for  liJ 
years.  To  (■oml)at  this  e\i|  a  eonference  was  h("ld  with  the 
Ioan-^h,lrks,  .at  which  they  were  told  tliat  the  company  would 
investigate  e.ach  claim  and  decide  the  amount  that  should 
be  j)aid.  leaving  \\\c  coiiit  as  the  luan-shark's  only  reconrse. 
The  loan-shark  caimot  hrave  tlu'  comts,  because  in  most 
cases  he  has  been  iireaking  a  law.  This  procedur(>  proved 
so  snci  essful  th.it  .if  the  end  nf  tlnce  months  tiiere  was  not  a 
salary  a.-signment  left  in  the  oflice.  This  company  n-alized 
the  neci  --,ity  of  pro\iiliiig  ,a  snli--litute  for  the  small  loan. 
The  watre  eaiticr  often  nmst  boriow  sums  frotn  $10  to  $75; 
t;o  a  fund  uas  jirovidcd  with  whiih  to  take  care  of  these 
small  lojuis." 

Credit  Union.  There  seems  to  be  no  good  reason  wliy  an 
ordinary    .-iviiijis    bank    would    not    cooperate   and    accept 


IXSURAXCK,   SAVINGS,   AXD    LOANS 


325 


even  the:  smallest  deposits;  but  the  workiiiginan  rifeds  more 
than  a  safe  depository  for  surplus  earnings.  In  evaluating 
any  of  the  several  savings  and  loan  systems  tlu^  following 
points  are  important  :  the  banking  hours  must  conform 
to  the  emploj'es'  eonvenienee ;  the  agency  must  be  con- 
veniently located  and  the  depositor  must  l)e  encouraged  to 
deposit  small  amounts  of  less  than  a  dollar  ;  credit  should  be 
extended  to  him  witli  his  character  as  security.  The  Credit 
Union  seems  to  meet  all  these  re(iuirements,  and  provid- 
ing the  Amcr.  an  peojjle  can  prove  their  ability  to  engage 
in  cooperative  undertaking  there  seems  to  be  no  reason  why 
the  savings  and  evf'dit  function  should  not  be  combined  in 
this  satisfactory  way. 

The  objection  to  the  Credit  Union  in  this  countiy  is  that 
the  people  are  too  individualistic  for  any  cooperative 
undertaking;  but  although  experi(>ncc  is  small  it  indicates 
that  certain  groups,  such  as  the  employe's  of  one  firm,'" 
possess  the  reciuirements  for  such  an  organiz;ition.  The 
employer  may  think  it  advisable  to  encourage  his  (Mn{)loyes 
to  form  a  Credit  Union,  which,  owned  a'ld  managed  entirely 
by  themselves,  will  cultivate  self-respect  and  knowledge  of 
business  methods  and  will  increase  etiicieucy. 


CHAPTKR    XII 


ORGAMZATIOX   OF  THK    DEPAimiEXT   OP   LABOR 
ADMIXISTRATIOX 

Purpose  of  Labor  Administration.  —  Worcs  —  the  return 
for  the  work  done,  and  tho  possibility  of  increased  return 
as  time  noes  on  -  are  tlie  worker's  prime  interest.  But  in 
addition  any  faiilitic^  ihal  will  make  the  worker  healthy, 
add  to  the  joy  of  his  woik  and  Rive  him  an  interest  in  it  will 
add  to  the  productivity  (if  the  individual  and  the  completeness 
of  his  life.  .V  workman  who  is  ill  is  a  burden  to  himself, 
to  his  family,  ami  to  the  industry  in  which  he  is  employed. 
Tlic  healthy  woikmaii  i^,  in  ;d!  prol)ability,  the  reverse. 
The  need  for  fireatcr  total  and  hourly  output  and  the  need 
for  moi'f  leisure  for  rrcreation.  will  always  make  efficiency 
in  pioduction  a  c(inunoii  lioal  for  employer  and  employe. 
Lalior  administration  shonid  make  industry  mor(>  effective 
by  makiny;  tiic  workers  more  eflicient,  and  th(>  output  for 
each  hoin-  of  elTort  better  in  (juality  and  f^reater  in  (luantitJ^ 

Current  Misunderstanding.  -  Both  employers  and  em- 
ploves  have  larmly  faileil  to  .'ippi'eciate  this  iimt\ial  interest 
in  service  activities.  The  anta;.:Miiism  l)etween  th(>  manaf>;e- 
nient  and  the  rank  .and  file  in  indu-try  has  b(>en  la-eated  by 
disputes  ovei'  wiures  ;nid  the  ch\i-ion  of  pioduct,  and  as  a 
result  h:i-  unfoitunatelv  intiifeied  with  the  mtroduction 
of  tho-e  se!'\iee<  fur  eiiiployes  whii'li  aim  to  increase  j)i'o- 
ductivity  and  >iioiild  only  beiu'lit  liie  workers  and  in  ao 
wise  injure  them.  The  manaueiiient  has  often  been  respon- 
sible for  I  hi-  ant  ;iuoni-m  by  fail  inn  toni.ake  clear  the  distinct  ion 
Leiween  liie  rew.ini  ior  iaiior  w  inch  a  \'.  orkman  receives  m  iiiu 

S2{i 


DEPAHTMKXT    OF    LABOR 


327 


form  of  \vap;os,  and  (he  sorvices  rondorod  him  as  an  employe, 
which  should  not  he  intended  as  a  reward  for  labor  hut  for  tlie 
sole  purpose  of  inoreasinjf  his  etTtM-tiveness.  Thus  railroad 
executives  during'  tiie  jx'iiod  of  stress  before  the  passage  of 
the  Adanison  law,  sout^ht  to  use  the  Pension  Funds  as  a  club 
to  restrain  the  workers  from  striking.  Such  action  by  the 
management  of  one  inilustrj'  contrilmtes  to  the  spreading 
of  an  attitude  of  sus[)icion  amont;;  all  employes  ajiainst  all 
forms  of  so-called  "  service  for  employes."  The  steel 
workers  included  as  a  demand  in  the  lecent  steel  strike  the 
elimination  of  the  medical  examination  of  employes  in  that 
industry,  one  of  the  most  vitally  necessary  provisions  for 
the  protection  of  their  own  health  and  labor  power.  Both 
sides  fail  to  realize  that  the  introtluction  of  medical  care 
for  employes,  or  of  a  rest  room,  or  restaurant,  like  the  intro- 
duction of  any  new  machinery,  is  mutually  desirable  if  it 
increases  production,  but  that  it  must  do  so  without  unduly 
restricting  individual  liberty.  It  has  nothing  to  do  with 
wages.  If  offered  as  a  substitute  for  wages  or  in  any  way 
used  as  a  means  of  dettcting  "  midesiral)le  "  employes  its 
failure  is  easily  foretold.  Service  activities  in  their  limited 
field  should  yield  large  returns.  They  will  not  forestall  trade 
unionism,  they  will  not  solve  disputes  over  wages,  and  unless 
directed  with  vision,  they  will  not  develoj)  an  esprit  dc  corps. 
Preliminary  Study.-  The  approach  to  tlu'  problems  in- 
volved in  the  organization  of  that  most  delicate  ami  intri- 
cate of  machinery,  the  i)lant  ])tMsonnel,  must  be  scientific. 
Sentimentality  and  lieiieficetice  avail  little  in  service  work. 
The  i)reliminary  study  foi'  the  dexclopiiient  of  .any  phase 
of  the  work  should  include  an  analysis  of  (c  ihe  nee(l  for  it 
from  the  standjx'int  of  jjroduction  and  llif  individual  em- 
pl!.V(\  (/))  th(>  best  way  to  fill  the  ne(>d,  (r)  the  demands  and 
attitudt>  of  the  workeis  in  regard  lo  it.  and  id)  unavoidable 

limitations  as  to  the  scope  of  service  to  lie  rendered,      .\tten- 
»;   ..   i   1...  ;.i   «..   <i ;,.i; e....:\:,:....  t i, •.;,.,> 


328 


TIIK    IIU.MAX    FACTOR    IX    INDUSTRY 


in  the  industry  and  oomniunity,  th(>  dil'foronoo  in  the  needs  of 
a  shop  or  clerical  force,  of  a  male,  mixed,  or  female  force,  and 
of  employes  coming  from  diff(>rent  types  of  homes  and  sur- 
roundings. The  way  to  fill  the  ne(>d  can  be  determined 
only  after  an  analysis  of  all  available  information  as  to  the 
value  of  the  various  methods  in  use.  The  approval  of  the 
workers  is  necessary  if  the  service  is  to  be  fully  utilized. 
Consultation  with  then  in  order  to  determine  the  best 
ways  to  fill  the  n(>eds,  to  sound  out  possible  objections,  and 
to  define  clearly  the  purpose  and  scope  of  service  contem- 
plated, will  avoid  future  misunderstandings.  For  example, 
employes  should  know  that  a  medical  department  rlesigned 
solely  for  first-aid  and  emergency  treatment  cannot  give 
attention  to  more  serious  illnesses,  or  those  requiring  the 
latter  attention  will  by  their  criticism  reduce  the  value  of 
the  entire  undertaking.  Again,  the  space  available  for  equip- 
ment in  the  plant  premises  or  environs  will  affect  the  form 
of  service  that  is  to  be  otfered. 

Need  for  Experts.  —  The  organization  and  administration 
of  the  work  of  the  service,  employment,  health,  and  other 
branches  of  labor  administration  belong  in  the  hands  of 
experts.  This  is  true  whether  the  management,  the  workers, 
or  a  coml)ination  of  the  two  determine  the  broad  policies 
to  be  followed.  Labor  administration  is  not  child's  play. 
It  is  rather  the  work  of  especially  trained  :ind  unusualiy 
capable  people.  Specialists  must  decide  upon  the  mental, 
temperamental  and  physical  recjuirements  of  the  different 
jobs  of  the  industry,  on  the  kinds  of  fire  escapes  needed,  the 
heating,  lighting,  and  ventilating  systems  adapted  to  the 
constructioii  of  the  plant  and  the  needs  of  the  workers,  and 
on  all  other  service  methods  and  eciuipment.  They  must 
further  (hnise  the  statistical  records  to  show  the  value  of  the 
various  exi)ernnents  made.  If  the  size  of  the  plant  does  not 
w.arrant  the  continuous  em|)l()yment  of  such  experts,  the 
ciiipioynient   inunager  uv  gt-iu-tai  Miper\  isor  of   personnel, 


DEPARTMENT   OF   LABOR 


329 


I 


like  the  futuily  pliysici;ui,  must  c;\ll  specialists  in  consulta- 
tion to  (liaf^nose  existing  diihculties  and  to  suggest  remedies. 

Importance  of  Attitude.  —  The  mere  installation  of  serv- 
ice equipment,  no  matter  how  complete,  will  be  ineffective 
without  efficient  continuous  management  by  those  who 
have  not  only  technical  knowledge  and  training,  but  also 
an  appreciation  of  method  and  purpose.  The  spirit  in 
which  the  work  is  undertaken  and  cairied  on,  the  earnest- 
ness of  the  desire  in  those  who  administer  it  to  secure  the 
fullest  cooperation  of  the  employes  in  solving  these  human 
prol)lems  of  production,  remain  the  chief  factors  in  success. 
The  qualifications  for  those  in  charge  of  the  different  branches 
of  service  vary  gnnitly. 

The  Employment  Manager.  —  The  employment  manager, 
for  instance,  is  expected  to  be  "  a  specialist  in  human 
relationship."  "  It  is  nmch  bett(>r  and  rcnjuires  less  time 
and  expense  to  teach  an  experienced,  well  trained  employ- 
ment manager  the  necessary  details  of  shipbuilding  to 
qualify  him  sufficiently  to  liandle  his  work,  than  it  does 
to  take  a  man  who  knows  all  about  ships  and  try  to  teach 
him  the  principles  of  modern  employment  management, 
and  to  develop  within  him  the  i)ersonal  qualifications  nec- 
essary to  handle  men,"  claims  the  Industrial  Service 
Section  of  the  Emergency  Fleet  Corporation.*  Beyond 
the  supposition  that  an  employment  manager  ;s  a  "  master 
of  system  "  he  nuist  l)e  courteous  and  even-tempered, 
sympathetic,  just,  intuitive,  quick  and  sure  in  d(>cision, 
firm  and  of  the  motor  type,  from  which  arises  executive 
energy.  He  must  be  al)le  to  analyze  the  facts  related  to 
his  work,  and  have  the  constructive  imagination  to  lioWe 
the  many  problems  whicli  arise.  Intervii'wing  ai)plicants 
for  work  is  in  itself  a  skilled  occupation  and  demands  in 
addition  to  th(>se  personal  and  mental  qiiilities,  a  knowledge 
of  sources  of  lai>or  su|)ply,  edui'ational  institutions,  psychol- 
ogy, and  the  tecluncal  processes  ot  tiie  husme.ss  ot  the  luiu.- 


I 


S30 


THE   HUMAX   FACTOR    IX    IXDUSIII 


The  type  of  functions  shown  in  tho  following  chart  indi- 
cates the  problems  to  be  handled  whether  the  employment 
manager  serves  in  all  capacities,  or  only  as  the  directing 
head. 


Employmi-nt 
Manager 


Assistant  l-",nii>Ioymont 
ManuKor 


/     niriiic     \       / 
\  Division   /       \ 


Adjustiiiont  ;uiil  I'.in;)loyo 
Uohitidus  Division 


\       I    Clerical   \ 
j       \  Division  / 


Assistant 

Eniployniont 
Manascr 


Enifiloymort 

Man.iBcr 


Chief 
Clerk 


Interviewer 


Inspector 

of 

Applications 


Pass  and 
Rate  Clerks 


Office  Force 

Clerks, 
?tenoKraphors, 
Messengers 


The  Industrial  Physician.  —  Industrial  medicine  is  like- 
wisp  a  profession  in  itself,  distinct  from  that  of  ordinary- 
medical  practice.     As  one  hygienist  has  said:-' 

Employers  shmilfl  consider  that  two  types  of  mind  are  needed  for 
industrial  medical  service  -one  capable  of  expressing  policies  and 
able  to  ortranize  the  stalT  and  direct  the  work,  the  other  competent 
in  details  and  qualified  to  do  the  nn  tjne  work.  .  .  .  Physicians  are 


apt  to  be  of  the  latter  type. 


To 


nre,  some  physicians  are 


endowed  with  administrative  capacity  wiiicli  refuses  to  he  stifled 
(by  the  medical  trainint,'  in  (htailsj.  By  surrounding'  themselves 
witli  skillful  assistants  and  directing,' their  efforts  wisely  they  become 
successful  and  usually  i)rotiiincnt  in  their  profession.     This  is  the 

kind  (if  Iih vsici.".!!    thiit   i^;  !!'.:■.■.:•    !■.•■.!;'    ♦.-.   .•'.■rc-^t    ir-.iiv-fr-v'  •!---.-!;.-.-.!  J- 

j)artments,  and  employers  woidd  do  well  to  select  this  type  when  in 


DEPARTMENT    OF    LABOR 


331 


need  of  the  services  of  chief  physicians.  T(j  secure  competent  physi- 
cians for  phices  where  only  one  doctor  is  needed,  with  possibly  one 
nurse  or  other  aid,  is  exceedingly  difficult,  as  the  duties  are  such  as 
to  require  the  exercise  of  initiati\  e  as  well  as  attention  to  the  details 
of  routine  work,  including  the  keeping  of  records  and  the  making  of 
reports,  matters  in  which  doctors  are  notoriously  neglectful.  .  .  . 
It  is  Ixst  til  s(-cure  for  these  positions,  if  possihle,  doctors  who  have 
acted  as  assistants  in  established  industrial  nu'dical  ilcpartments, 
and  while  there,  have  shown  talent  for  management.  Tliis  also  ap- 
plies to  the  choici'  of  chief  physicians  for  those  departments  in  which 
the  executi\es  are  expected  to  do  part  of  the  routine  work,  the  size 
of  the  establishments  necessitating  the  employment  of  several  doc- 
tors but  not  justifying  the  devotion  of  one  man's  whole  time  to  ad- 
ministration. 

In  the  largo  industry  the  medical  department  may  require 
the  services  of  a  tpchnically  qualified  personnel: 


Chief  Physician 


1 : \ n    , 

(Special  CHnics)        (.Medical  Examination!  (Dispensary) 

I 


Oculist 


Dentist 


Assistant         ;  .Vssi.stant 


Doctors 


I 


Xurso  i 


Clerical 
Staff 


1            1 

Rocntgen- 
oldgist 

Doctors 

Nurse 

Clerical 

Staff 

Lahoratdry 

Experts 

Similar  specifioations   of   function    attend    the    adminis- 
tration of  the  deparinients  oi  .safety  and  ^amiation,  educa- 


332 


THE    IIUMAX    FACTOR    I\    INDUSTRY 


tion  and  of  general  s(>rvicp  for  cniployos,  ('on('(>rn(Ml  with  lunch 
rooms,  recreation,  i)lant  puhlii  ations  and  other  activitii's. 
This  is  true,  let  us  reiterate,  whether  the  plant  is  small  or 
large,  and  under  democratic,  co()perative,  or  autocratic 
management.  If  the  plant  is  small,  the  technical,  mental, 
and  temperanK-ntal  (jualities  of  these  various  administrators 
must  ho  combined  as  far  as  possilile  in  one  or  two  people, 
instead  of  being  distributed  among  a  number.  If  the  plant 
policies  are  controlled  i)y  the  (>ntire  personnel  of  the  plant, 
or  by  a  joint  committee  representing  the  management  ;tnd 
employes,  or  by  a  financial  directorshi]),  the  administraiion 
."  these  branches  of  service  must  still  be  relegated  to  special- 
ists. 

Department  Organization.  —  In  many  industries  some 
sort  of  lal)or  ad::iinistra'ion  for  (>mployes  already  exists. 
In  some  instances,  elaborate  ecjuipnunt  with  a  multiple 
personnel  has  been  accumulated  for  the  sole  purpose  of 
caring  for  the  human  machinery,  but  so  gradually  and  un- 
consciously that  the  work  has  not  been  centralized  or  con- 
trolled. 

Obviously  the  medical  department  cannot  function  to 
the  best  advantage  unless  the  cooiieraticm  of  the  employ- 
ment department  facilitates  the  transf(>r  of  an  employe  from 
an  occupation  to  which  he  is  not  i)hysically  suited  to  an- 
other more  favorable  on(\  The  work  of  tlie  employment 
manager,  on  th.-  rontrary,  is  held  up  unless  the  medical 
examiner  is  ac(|uaiiited  with  the  physical  specifications  for 
various  jobs.  Such  correlation  can  only  t)e  s(>cured  where 
every  branch  of  the  administration  of  labor  is  under  the 
supervi>ion  of  a  chief  executive. 

Control  of  Policy.  —  liven  before  the  j)resent  movement 
to  "  democratize  industry  "  and  "  to  give  the  workers  an 
increasing  share  of  control,"  service  activities  were  often 
managetl  jointly  by  employer  and  employees.  Mutual 
Benefit   Associations   have  been   organized   in   consultation 


DEPARTMENT    OF   LABOR 


333 


with  tho  management  of  a  plant,  consulting  safety  com- 
mit '>s  hav(>  grown  up  with  tho  organized  safety  move- 
ment, and  recreation  with  the  plant  as  a  center  has  long 
been  under  the  control  of  employes  in  some  plants.  Co- 
operative effort  has  frequently  proved  to  be  more  effective 
in  developing  service  activities  tlum  management  solely 
by  employers  or  employes.  The  success  of  certain  Mutual 
Benefit  Associations  has  been  attributed  to  the  check  on 
malingering  furnished  by  the  interested  employes.  Again, 
there  are  instances  of  the  failure  of  recreational  activities 
instituted  by  employers  which,  when  converted  to  the  manage- 
ment of  employes,  became  signal  successes,  "^he  cooperation 
of  the  management  provides  a  needed  element  of  continuity 
in  the  organization  of  services  for  employes.  In  a  unionized 
industry,  moreover,  the  spokesmen  of  the  workers  must  be 
consulted  in  the  early  stages  of  planning  service  work. 
Wherever  the  control  is  lodged,  every  one  must  understand 
in  advance  where  the  final  decision  in  the  enforcement  of 
policy  rests.  If  an  employer  forbids  a  customary  meeting 
on  company  property  at  which  the  employes'  association 
will  be  addressed  by  some  one  or  on  some  subject  not  ap- 
proved l)y  the  management,  much  discussion  and  consequent 
hard  feeling  may  arise  unless  the  employer's  censorship 
powers  have  been  well  defined  to  begin  with. 

Democracy  in  Industry  Not  a  Technical  Problem.  —  This 
is  clearly  brought  out  by  Mr.  Leiserson,  impartial  Chair- 
man of  the  Labor  Adjustment  Board,  Rochester,  N.  Y., 
who  says :  * 

Committees  of  employes  may  be  used  hy  the  technical  men  who 
handle  the  personal  fflatiuns  in  industry,  hut  they  are  not  the  same 
kind  of  ofRanizations  ,)f  cmijloyes  that  are  needed  to  (ieal  with  the 
economic  or  >^overnmenlal  relations.  The  first  can  he  permittad 
to  offer  to  the  manaRement  only  advice  and  suRpestions.  The 
second  must  have  a  veto  power  on  the  acts  oi  th^^  manaRement,  and 
^ill  snon.fr  or  later  dep.mn<l  an  ifiinil  voice  in  determinintr  wacea 
and   hours  and   controlling   discipline.  .  .  .     Welfare  committees 


334  THE    IIUMAX   FACTOR    IN'    INDUSTRY 

.  .  .  deal  with  persoiud  pro'ilci-is  onl\ ,  with  personal  managpm.;rt 
questions;  yet  either  in  i^iKjraiiee  or  as  a  subt(;rfuge,  they  are 
eoniinonly  offered  to  einphjyes  as  industrial  democracy.  .  .  .  This 
is  play int,' with  fire \n\  eniijloycr  who  is  not  ready  for  collec- 
tive barfiainin^,  who  is  not  li.okinj^  toward  turnint^  over  to  his  em- 
ployes .j()  ijer  cent  of  his  eoiitrol  over  terms  and  eonditi(ms  of  employ- 
ment, had  better  beware  of  shop  committees.  If  lie  desires  merely 
to  improve  the  i>ersonal  relations  between  his  manaij;i'ment  and  his 
men,  if  he  wants  only  to  be  lirou^-lit  into  floser  contac-t  with  his 
employes  for  tiie  puri)ose  of  insuring;  a  s(juare  deal  to  them  as  he 
seen  il,  .  .  .  then  all  hv  needs  is  a  j^ood  employment  and  service 
organization.  .  .  .  Shop  commiUees  are  not  at  all  necessary,  and 
they  are  liliely  to  confuse  the  managi'rs  witli  issues  of  democratic 
control  of  industry,  while  the  emplovi'S  may  lie  mish'd  into  thinking 
tiiey  are  going  to  ha\e  a  real  \oicc  in  th(  management  and  become 
resentful  and  rebiHious  when  tiiey  liml  out  the  truth.  If  these 
advisory  committees  are  used  in  personnel  management  work  it  is 
very  important  that  most  careful  i  xolanatiuus  be  made  to  the 
employes  so  that  tliey  will  not  misunderstand. 

So  while  Labor  Aciininistra'ion  and  sueli  committees  as  may 
be  (li'vclopfd  in  (•(inncrtion  vith  it  are  coiieerned  witli  in- 
crca.sing;  pinchictimi.  tlic  so-called  '  einpioyer's  union," 
workshop  coininittec,  or  joint  inana}j;eni(nt  l)oards  are  con- 
cerned cliicfiy  with  the  division  of  product.  The  llnjilisli 
Wliitlcv  i'ej)orts.  it  is  true.  eni|)ha-i/ed  throughout  the  im- 
portance of  ine;fasing  prodacti.in  in  adxocating  the  program 
of  joint  control  of  tlie  m;inagetnent  of  woikers  aiul  c.ipital. 
As  a  result ,  service  aelivities  1  ituially  formed  an  integral 
liart  of  the  work  of  tin'  .loini  Di-trict  Councils  and  Works 
Committees  recommended  by  ihem.  Tliis  function  was, 
however,  of  secondary  impoitanc(  to  that  of  the  ;idjustment 
of  wage-  and  gri(  vances.  I.ikewi.-e,  with  the  "('om|)any 
I'liioiis  '■  dcvelopi'd  in  the  I'liited  Slates  by  llie  Shipping; 
Hoai'd,  the  \\:\v  I,;ibni-  M  i.ard  and  individual  employers, 
their  initial  program-  have  ;ni'nti<Mied  tiie  importance  of 
oioduetmn  .and  hnind  user  to  employes  the  control  of 
.-ervice   Work,    but    the   k  al   inteiot    has    lieen    in    creating 


? 


DEPARTMENT    OF    LABOR 


335 


porm:inpnt  arbitration  Imards  to  rliniinato  strikes.  This 
()l)jcct  if  achit'vcil  would  naturally  increase  pross  produc- 
tion, hut  not  necessarily  the  ei'fectiveness  of  tli(>  individual 
work<M-.  These  orfjans  of  "  democracy  "  tluis  deal  essentially 
witii  the  ne^iative  aspect  of  production,  that  of  doinp;  away 
witli  friction,  rathi'i  than  with  the  positive  asjicct  of  pro- 
dueiuK  more  ^oods  i)er  hour  per  worker.  The  purport  of 
these  workshop  committees  in  coimection  with  carinfj;  for 
the  human  machinery  of  a  plant ,  witli  which  we  ar(>  here  con- 
cerned, is  merely  to  indicate  the  fiereial  tendency  to  appre- 
ciate the  mutual  heiiefits  of  efficiency,  and  the  fact  that 
mutual  consent  alone  jxTmits  efhciency.  FAperience  with 
them  has  heen  to(»  brief  to  wariant  a  det..ile;l  statement  of 
result^  at  this  time.  The  tendency,  however,  cannot  bo 
ignored  in  the  organization  of  any  phase  of  labor  adminid- 
tration. 

Lessening  Importance  <_.  Control.  —  The  importance  of 
the  control  of  service  activities  will  decrease  as  rapi<lly  as 
cientihc  knowledge  accumulates  and  a  pcneral  mutual 
understandinp:  between  m;in;iii<'ineiit  and  men  prevails. 
The  (]Uestioii  of  -afety  devices  rarely  if  ever  apjx'ars  in  union 
demands  or  individual  contr;u'ts.  "  Saf(>ty  "  h.as  become  a 
scienc(>  recoiiiiized  by  l)oth  employer  and  employe  as  a  prob- 
lem of  prnduction  and  is  no  loiitier  a  -ul)j"ct  of  dis|)utes  and 
arl)itration.  The  s.ime  may  soon  be  true  of  working  hours; 
for  instance,  if  sci(>iitifjc  experiment  proves  th.at  einht  hours 
or  six  hours  or  some  other  perio<l  is  the  mo<t  productive^  one 
for  the  working'  day  in  a  f:i\('ii  occuimtioii,  'he  lermth  of 
the  wnikinp  day  will  then  be  removed  from  the  field  of 
barter  .and  discussion  ;diti"-  with  in;ii:y  nther  -ubjeets  which 
iidw  enneeni  the  iiidi\i'      il  wiirkii'. 

!ii  tlie  ine;mt  iine,  it  '-  Will  to  re:di/e  the  value  of  coopera- 
♦idii  wliich  i-  illn-tr:i1ed  b\-  i!ie  follnwitiir  -torv.  In  Mniiland, 
at  the  beuiimin^i;  of  the  war,  a  lonu-e-t.iiilished  muiuiion:' 
fac'oi  V  built  a  new  shoj)  almost  identical  in  e(iuipmeut  and 


33G 


THE   HUMAN   FACTOR   IN    INDUSTRY 


construction  ^-ith  the  oldor  sliops.  Within  six  months  the 
newer  and  more  inexperienced  hands  in  thi.s  shop  had  so 
far  outstripped  the  older  "orkers  in  efficiency  that  they  were 
prockicins  13,000  articles  a  week  instead  of  the  5000  which 
had  been  expected,  estimating  on  the  rate  of  output  in  the 
older  shops.  The  only  explanation  was  that  the  patriotic 
zeal  of  these  new  workers  was  not  hampereil  by  "  the  lonj? 
standing  customary  restrictions  upon  habits  or  rhythms  of 
work  "  which,  in  spite  of  patriotic  ze:d,  retarded  the  speed 
of  the  older  workers.  If  willing  efToi  t  and  csjjrit  dv  corps 
can  thus  tripl(>  the  output  of  indifferent  labor,  the  enlistment 
of  the  workers'  interest  in  their  work  and  in  output  becomes 
the  supreme  goal  for  emi)loy(Ts.''  Service  work  should  help 
to  achieve  this  end.  Success  awaits  the  extension  of  service 
activities  in  any  industry,  if  employ(>r  and  employe  are  bent 
only  on  securing  through  them  increased  effectiveness  for  each 
indiviilual,  and  for  the  business  ;is  a  whole.  With  such  a 
concept  the  old  paternalistic  ai)proach  has  no  place.  Service 
for  the  work(>r  becomes  solely  and  frankly  a  business  proposi- 
tion in  which  each  employe  from  the  president  down  is  in- 
terested. The  development  of  any  single  activity  m  >  lie 
ctirefully  considered,  its  introduction  must  be  such  as  to 
promise  maximum  returns,  and  its  developmeut,  ailminis- 
trution,  and  control  must  bring  increasing  results. 


LIST  OF  REFERENCES 


THK   IN'TlioniTTION 

1.  Salimnnn,  L.  F. ;  Enaliih  Ituiuslrirs  nj  thr  MvUlr  Agex;  Boston,  HoURhlon 
Mifflin  Co  .  llil.i,  p,  231. 

2.  Jack,  A.  1'.  ;  .in  InlroiitirhHn  to  Ihe  HiKtnry  of  Lift  AHxumnce ;  LondoD,  King, 
1912,  Foolnoli',  p.  1  lH, 

;i.    Saiziniinn,  L.  K. ;  p.  2:ill, 

4.  IJunlop.  ()  .1  ,  Jind  I)(Mini:\iin,  U  D. ;  Ern/Ut,h  ApprentKeshxp  ami  Child  Labor; 
N.  Y.,  Miii-nuiliin  Co.,  r,tl2,  p.  .')(). 

5.  Jark,  .\    K,  ;  p,  IV.> 

6.  Lip.son,  i;  ;  An  Inlrmluctwn  to  the  Economic  Hixlnry  of  England:  London, 
Black,  191,'),  p.  .ii»V 

7.  Sinilli,  .T.    V  ,  ErnU.ih  (/i/i/./.i;  London,  I..  Tnibn.T  &  Co  ,  IS.'O,  p.  xMvi. 

8.  I.ipaon.  Iv  :  p.  .id.'). 

9.  Tlic  (uliuwiiiK  licro.iiii  of  Holjcrt  Owi'n'.-H  net ivit ictt  at  Niw  Lanark  is  takon 
from  I'oiiniorc,  F.  ;  HohrrI  ()in>, :  London,  Ilutrlonson  A  Co,  I9(Mi,  Vol.  I,  p  HO-IH.). 
Gilnian,  .\    I'  ;  .1   Duidinit  lo  Labor,   Boston,  lloiwhlnn  Mifflin  Co.,  Chap    IM. 

10.  I'roud,  I).  K.  ;  Welfare  Work;  London.  G,  Bfll  A  Sod.h,  Ltd.,  1916,  p.  292-293. 
IL    Colnian,  N,  I'.;  |i,  .".9. 

12.  Ibvl:  p.  12.-.. 

13.  Ihid  :  p.  13:. 

11.  Profit  Shanuit  bi^  Arncricari  Employers ;  Nat.  Civir  I'cd  ,  p.  10, 
15.  C;ilnian,  N    1'  ;  p    1711 

Ifi.  Itolini.ion,  M.;  Loom  oo,l  Sinnll,  ;  S  \  ,  IS9S,  p.  19.  Al.l.oti,  K  ;  Women 
in  Industry;  S    Y.,  1)    Anpl.ton  A  < 'o  ,  1910.  p.   Ilii 

17.  .Siiintirr,  H.  ,  JL-^fori/  of  Women  I.I  loduHtry  m  the  Cnited  Statcn ,  \n\.  IX,  Coni- 
niissioniT  of  Labor's  1'rporl,  Condition  of  Women  and  Cliild  Wimr  Karncrs  in  the 
I.  S  ,   1910,  p    99. 

18.  Koliin..4oi,,  IL;  p.  99. 

19.  Snmnir,  H   ;  p    SI). 

20.  Nilcs  Uiui.-<t.T,  May  19,  1,S27. 

21.  Slondiiril  DifnnlLioi  of  Labor  T'irvorer  and  Methods  of  i  'nmputing  the  P  rrenlnue 
of  Labor  Turiiorir;    Ilid    Man  ,  .S'pl.,  19IS 

22.  Uimlop,  and  Drn-nan;    p    -'.-S 

23.  Alrx.'iTiiliT.  V  :  llirmi/  and  I'lnnu.  ll.i  Enoiomic  Waste  ami  llo\c  to  Aroui  It; 
An    Am.  Arad  ,  .May,  191(1 

21.    I'rof    N:il    Saf.-ly  ( 't.iitwil,  1917,  p    |19. 
2.'>.    Tlic  Snrvi>,  I'll.    Hi,  |01>.  p    .'.It 

2t(.  Hindirson,  C  U  .  dtwrns  m  Imliistry;  N  Y  .  D  \pp|pton  A  Co.,  191.'), 
p.  xvii. 

27     C.ilnian.  \    I'  ;     \|.p    II 

ClIAlTrii.-^    II     AM)    III 


I.    Fisher.  Boyd  .   M,lh.>d,  of  n>d^..,„j  Lalxn  r.triiorcr .   An    Aai    .\-ad  ,  Ma-. ,  I'llli 

2  Bnllflin,  Ohio  Indiisinal  Coinmisflioii,  .liini'  2tl,  19l(i 

3  Willlts,  J«.iM.ph  II   ;    7'/ir  Labor  Turnour  o-id  Ihi   U  nmanx.'inu  <f  I  nduilry .     An. 
Aril     \'ad  ,  S.|.l  ,  I'll.'. 

I      Killv,  Hov  W   ,    llinnu  the  W^'ker.    The  Knuin.'.'riiiii  MHifajini' Co  .  1918 


33S 


THE    HUMAX    FACTOR    IX    IXDUSTRY 


.").    Fcisa,  HirlKiril:    T'lr.^nniil  ff.  ;..'(io)rs//t;)  ri,>  a  llri.~is  nf  Srirnlillr  M anagrmcnt  ■    \n 
Am.  Aci'l  ,  .M.t\,  I'll.-,. 

'■'     K.ill>.r    .1   .     /■/..    n'lTl:  ,if  Ih,   Kmiiln,im,„i  Ih  jiartmint  i<f  thr  Oiniiison  Manu- 
frictnnii'i  Cnmi-ai,;/:     .\u.   Am     .\<:i(|..    May,    I'.Uli. 

7.    HaiumiL',  K.;    Mon    Wmk  ,it„l  /■Viccr  Mistakes :    f<ystcm,  <  let.,  Illl.'!. 

s.    Murqiii,-,  I)   S,  ;    Heiiunn;/  tin  hibiir  Titrnmer:    I'ti.  Drp't,  I.iilxir  ami  lud    Bui 
Feb.,  1'.I17. 

',1.    l"i.4ifr.   Ho  .1;  llnw  to  I{,ilur,    [.,ihur   Turmnir;   V.  S.    Hur.    I.ab.   Stat.   Hul  , 
N  ,    S27.  .VpnI.  11)17 

10.  HlarKtonl.   Kailii'riii.-.  an.l    N.nci.ml.,  .\rihur,     Tit,    .J,ih,   Ihi    Man,  the   Boss- 
lJou:,|,Mt:iy.  I'aKf  iV  Ci.,   I'.Un,  p.   l.t, 

11.  \\illit<.    J.wpli    II.;     Ddil.iprifiU    ff    Emi'lnymint    Manaycra'    A.ixuriations; 
Monthly  It  ,  S.pi.,   I'il7. 

12.  Nat.    A.ss'ii   Coip.    Sdmol^;     Krp.jrt    of    Conimitt'.''.'  on   Vocational   Guidance, 
June  I,  rui) 

13.  hid.  Man.;    .\pril,  I'.M7.  p    12t. 

14.  I.ciwTNoTi,  William;    I'ubiir  ICmphiumi  nt  Offucn  in   Theory  and  Practice;    Am. 
Labor  I.cnir.    If  ,  May,  li)14. 

l.">     Nat.  A.s.-'ii  Corp.  SchooN  :    Hi  port,  I'.il.'i. 

Itl.    Hundy,  (i,;    ir„r/,-  .«///„  Knplui/mi  nt  I),  partmnit  of  the  F,ir,i  Motor  Company; 
V.  S    Hur.  I.ab.  .Stat.  Hul,,  No.  HHi,  .Ian.,  l!ili', 

17.    Am    Labor  l,r'«i.«.  I{  ,  June,  l',U7,  Cliap.  l.\. 

1>,    I'.arducr,  II.   I..;     Th,   ScUvlum  f'robUm  nf  then,i/  ISrothera;    V.  S.  Bur    Lab- 
Stai    Hul  ,  No   ."J7.  April,  I'.ilT. 

l'.».    Ii'ithf  /or  Emiiloyea;   Curtii*  I'ubli.-liinii  Company. 

20.    .\ndn-\v«,  ,1.  II. ;  .t  \nlioiial  Syfliin  ../  I.<ilior  Exrham.ies  in  iM  Rrtalion  'r.  Inlus- 
tnal  Ejl  rum:, :    -Vn.  .Am.  .\rail.,  .S-pt.,  HM  . 

Jl.    llui'v.   K,;    I'rolilfmi  .'.ri.-iii'i  n:ol    M.I/m.U   l\,.t  in   I  nl,  rne-iiwi  ami  Selirimn 
Emiiloum:    Am.  .\in.  .\iad  ,  May,  l;M<i. 

-':.'     Hloojuli.ld,   .M.;    h:mi,to,imei,l  I'riilih  m^ :    In. I     Man,   .Sin-.,    r,il7 

.'  1.    Ki'ir,  .lolin  S.  ;     Th,    EslaliU:^hmii,t  .</  I'ermofu  nl  i  u'Urart.i   ailh  the  Sources  of 
Labor  Sumih/ :    .\n.  .\iii.  ,\iad,,  .May.  I'.MC,. 

24.    Manu-»iTipt.  ronlldc  nfi;d  ri'port  sliown  to  ;lii'  writers. 

2,5.    .Monilil.\    1!  ,  .^.pi  ,  ril7. 

20.    Andre  H-,    1     H   ;    .1    l'r,„l,,ol  l'ro,/ram  /..r  thr  Pr,r.f,t,„n  of  C'lemfloymrnt  in 
America:    \iu.  .\^.in  I.ab.  I,i>i;i-.,  I'.il.'i. 

27.    Mulilliau>4r,  Hilda;   I'ublir  KniiiUinmenl  liurmuK  ami  lb.  n  U,lilion  to  Motiogrrn 
of  I'.mploiimrtit  III  In.liisirii:    An.  .\ni.  Ai-.iil  .  May,  l!llti. 

2N.    IUiIpIii-II,  N.  \>  ;    llVi^.  ii  Slaiolanl  . I, ib  S,Hriri,iitioiif :    Ind  .  Man  ,  Deo,.  I',I17. 

2'.l.    I'.  S.  Sliip.   Hd.   Tin.   KliTt  Corp.;    .li./.i  /,.  Kmi,h.:,mi  nt  Miiiio,iir<  ami  hitir- 
ttriirriioti  Ship;iaril  ilcritiHitions :   KiM'rial  bullitm,  I'liil  ,  ^||^ 

.1(1.    Durki'.  1{.  J.  :  Wmtni  SiHrificatiotia  for  llinri,i :  An     \ni    Acad.  .May,  I'lUV 

'M.    Farnum,  A.  (i. :    The  liUal  hflitMry  from  tin   Slamlinnnt  of  llmlih  ami  Safily 
Prjc  Nat.  Siif.ty  Ciiuiicil,  N.  Y.,  VH'. 

;<2.    Unnnon,  V.  J.;    I'mnu  the  Mon  I'ant  .',:,:    Fartory,  .Manh.  I'Ms 

:i:i.    Ciidbiiry,   K. :     Exprrimenia   in   Iiiilualriul  Oruaniialwn .     London.    I.ondniiins 
Ciri-vn  A  Co  ,  UI12,  p.  4. 

ol.    Clothier,  ItolMTt  C. ;    The  Emptoym,  „t  Wurlt  of  tin  (  urt,.  I'nhti.^hini  CampaiKi; 
An.  .\m.  Acad  ,  .May,  I'.llii. 

;t."i     .Srhii.  iik-r,   II.;    Sil, cling   Y  lunij   Men  fur  i'arliciiliir  John:    Heprini,   inc.iiug 
Hitth  .SchiLil  Tcaihirii'  A»."'n.  Fch.  Lj,  I'.lia. 

:it'i.    Sciitl,   \V.    Dill;     Vocalional  Srln-lmn  nl  the  Carnegie  Institute  of  T,  •  himloui/ : 
V.  S.  Hur.  I.ab.  Slat,  Hul,  Ni>   227,  hIwi  coulidiiilial  iiianatcript 

37.    Fconomic  ISy.holouical  .iwociailon ;    Imflct 

3N.    I'riiud,  Dorothiii  i:.;   UV//,jic  llurA-.-   l.cind.m,  ■  :    Hi  II  .V  S.i,..  Ltd  .  I'.Uii,  p   h.i. 

3"     Ho—\,  C    S. ;    .Mental  ExamiiiaUane  for  Emimii/ca.     Ind    Man,  Dec,   |il7 

411     \\liippli-,  U.  M.;    The  Uu  uf  MenUil  Trait  in  Vucalumal  duiUanc,  .    An    Am 
Aoad  ,  .Ma.\.  HI  1(1. 

41     Circhi^".  .M    n  ;    Employment  Probb  ma  ami  //..,/    ih,   .l.ilni   II    Sl.l.-,,,,  C„m;..iii/ 
Mteta  Tinm,    Au.  Am   AoimI.,  May,  lUHi 


LIST   OF  REFEREXCES 


339 


42.  Metropolitan  Lifii  Insurnnrc  Company  ;    Ri'port  of  Welfare  Division,  1917. 

43,  Am.  AH?^'n  liid.  Ph>'.^.  unii  Suri^cuns,  Ui'p't,  I'.Uti,  p.  2S. 

4t,  Kike,  Vrfd  H.  ;  'I'hr  Xcnl  for  (iml  the  Vnlui  nj  I'hy.iiifU  Examination  of  Emiiloyei 
as  Illustratfd  in  the  Work  oj  the  Rikc-Kumler  Compnnij ;    \u.  \w.  .\cad  ,  May,  HUG. 

■I").  I'isiv,  K.  L. ;  I'triodic  l^hynical  Examinations  of  Kmpioyt\i ;  Addreaa  to  the 
National  .Vssociation  of  Maiiufarturor^,  May  2(j,  1'.J1J. 

41).  McMurtrie,  Doiigla.s  C;  I'lacenit  i,l  of  the  Cripjilid  awl  llanilicapprd  by  the 
PfnnHyliarua  Snii;  lUirina  of  Em pUofmrnt  .\tn.  .J.  Carf  (-f  Cri[)plc.-t,  \'oI.  I\',  No,  2. 
Mr.  Mc.Murtric  lias  con, piled  a  cimiplrtc  liililiourapliy  of  for(.'iKn  and  domestic  literature 
rcfernnn  to  the  iinployinent  of  the  war  cripple,  published  in  HuUetiu  No.  5  of  the 
Federal  Hoard  for  Vocational  Kducation,  Washington,  Feb,,  II'I.S. 

47.  Mod    llo.-p.,  .March,  IIU."). 

48.  Hepori  s  Coinnuttee  on  the  C'aro  of  the  Jewish  Tuberculous.  N.  Y.,  Nov.,  1915. 

49.  Circulars  ;i  and  4;  Working  Cmiditions  Servir.e;  U.  S.  Dep't  of  Labor.  Feb. 
17.  1919 

.50.    Lateness:    Industrial  Counselors.  Inc..  2  E,  J:!rd  St,.  N.  V..  1918. 

51.  liules  Oovemmg  Home  Oj're  Ctennil  Employes,  Metropolitan  Life  Ins.  Co., 
1919. 

.52.    Final  Rep't ;    Commission  on  Imlustnal  delations;    191.5.  Vol.  I,  ed.  1,  p.  166. 

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Htat.  Bui..  No,  227.  April.  i"17. 

.54.  Alexander,  M  ;  //i  lU  and  Finnu.  Its  Economic  Waste  and  How  to  .4ruui  It; 
An.  Am.  Acad  .  May.  191(i 

,5.5     Confidential  report 

.56.  Haikeit,  .J,  D,  ;  Slanilardizatiiin  of  the  Causes  of  Leaving  Job;  Ind.  Man., 
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,57     Ooiil.l,  F.,  C  ,    Ifrdncrng  Labor  Turnni-.r;    KM)' ;  .  Afiril.  191S. 

.58,  I'ish.  E,  11,;  Eiiiiinng  and  Analynni/  tin  l.olior  Turnover:  V .  .S,  Bur  Lab. 
Stat.  Bui,.  No.  227.  April.  1917. 

59,  r  S  Ship,  Bd,  ICm,  Fleet  Corp,  :  Handbook  .-.,  Employment  Stanagement 
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69,  Huhbell.  N,  I)  :  7".'ie  (hiian,;itioti  and  Scope  of  the  Employment  Dipartment; 
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ClI\l'Ti:H    IV 


1.  Clayton.  C,  T,  ;    TrnKiiim  that  l'r.i';,,les  Production.     Ind.   Man.,  April.  1919, 
p.  311-31.! 

2.  Kermhi'n-^teiner,  C;    Tli>    Trade  Conti'matton   Schools    ./  Munich:    Bui.    Nat. 
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3.  Barlow.   M,.    The  Education   Act,   l:il-.     l,.>ndon.  Nat.. Si.     Urpository,   I9I8. 

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5.  Schnrid' r.  11    ;    Selecting  Men  for  Job» ;    Ind.  Man  ,  .lune,  1916. 

6.  Schneider,  II   ;    Partial  Time  Trade  School. :     \ii    .\ni.    \cad  .  .Ian  .  I'.iO'i.  p.  .",2. 

7.  .Schu'  ider.    II.;     Education  for   Industrial    WorI.ers :     .*<chool    I".l!icienc\    .Seres, 
N.  V  .  World  Book  (•..,  191.5 

8.  Interviews  wiih  coordinat.>r  of  Wnshinnton   Irvim;   llii;h  .School.   April.    191S. 

9.  Outline  of  the  Plan  for  thi    Edutation  of  Apprentices,  Naiioiiui  Cash   Ueniater 
Company.  Oct.  1.  1911. 

10     I'ros.ser,  ('  :    T'li-  .VVii'  Apprenlicrship  im  a  Factor  m  h'cducug  Labor  Turnorer ; 
I'roc.  Kinpl.ivmeht  .M'n'rs  Conf.  I      S.  Uur.  I.ul).  Stat.  Bui,  No.  196,  Mav,  lUlli 

11.  Industrial  Education:    .\iii.  led    of  Labor,  Wiwh  ,  O.  C  ,  I'.lll). 

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April,  1915 

13.  Cilynn,  1'  .    U'.ir  Emcr,i,nc)j  Education  in  a  Wisconsin  Motor  Plant      American 
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It     Smiih.  I{    C.  ;    Trainini!  the  ImmigratI  m  Industry:    I'roe    I^Miploynient  M'K'ri 
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340 


THE   HUMAN   FACTOR   IN   INDUSTRY 


IT).    Bui.  L'.  S.  Stocl  C.irp  ,  No.  7,  Uoc,  VMX 

It).  Cross,  C.  W.  ;  Tin'  A}>i)renlf  Syi,li  ni  li  ihr  IVrw  Yirrk  Central  Linen;  An. 
Am.  Acad  ,  .Ian  ,  I'.tO'.t. 

17.  .Mi'xatKli'r,  M.  ;  The  Apprentice  System  <if  (tie  tleneral  Electnc  Company  at 
West  Lynn,  Mass.;    An.  .\iii.  Ai-ul.,  Jan.,  H»Oil. 

18.  Nat.  An-i'ii  ('i)rp.  Si'IiiihIh,  lilH,  p.  ;iri2. 

11*.  Wt'licr,  J.  II. ;  .1  Ih'serxption  t>/  ttie  Eilueationul  Work  t'amed  on  by  the  Packard 
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20.  Nat.  Asa'u  Corj).  Scho<jls,  I'.llt),  p.  lli7-lti^ 

21.  Fuld,  L.  K.  ;  Service  Instruction  of  American  Corporations;  Hul.  Bur.  Educ  , 
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22.  Nat.  Asa'n  Corp.  School.^,  Iin4,  p.  ;i:i7,  .CiS,  MV'. 

23.  Carptntcr,  C.  W. :    Huu   Wr  Tr<iined  jIiOH  \Vuin,n:    Iiid.  Man.,    May,  I'.tlS. 

24.  Kactory,  May,  l',n'.»,  p.  lllUI-lDHi. 

2.5.    Stanbrough,  D.  tJ,  ;    Packartt  Traimnij  Seloxfts  f^r  Employes ;    Ind.  Man.,  Nov., 

1918,  p.  378-382. 

2G.    Jolinrton,   .J.    I'.;    Possibilities   in    TraiuLfiiJ    F<ut'iry    Utlp;     Ind.    Man.,    Sept  , 

1919,  p.  224. 

27.  Ma<'Nar\',  I!.  K.  ;  lininstnal  Traimnij  in  Shiphmdlintj ;  Bui.  Nat.  Sue,  of  \ite. 
Ed.,  No.  27,  1-Vb.,  I'.ilS. 

28.  Rt'p't  S(-ction  on  Industrial  Training;  for  tlw  War  l-^intTijrncy,  ( 'ounril  of  Nat. 
Difensf,  Ma,\    1'),  1918. 

29.  Williams.  .\,  ;  The  Inslriielion  .</  \-ie  Employs  m  .\telh,i,ls  of  Sernee ;  An. 
Am.  Acad  ,  May,  I'.Uti. 

30.  Hcilly,  i'.  .1.;  The  Work  of  the  Emphoimiot  Dtportment  ,if  the  Dennison  \fatia- 
facturinQ  (\'mpany ;   .\n.  .\i!i.  .\cad.,  Ma\-,  191(i, 

31.  Hi'p't  on  !Salis  .Mithods  of  Burmunlis  .\ddinK  Machine  Companv  of  Detroit, 
n.  d. 

32.  Gil.son,  M.  ;  hislnietion  in  (,'arminl-tnakini/  in  (A<  Clotherajt  Shops;  Uul. 
Nut.  Ij^ic.  of  Voc.  Ed.,  No.  27,  I'eb,,  1918. 

33.  Sawyer,  Win.  .\.  :    InstalUnij  Employment  Mitloiils;    Ind.  Man.,  Jan.,  1919. 

34.  Factory.  IV'li  ,  1919,  p.  274. 

35.  Tlie  New  York  lleraM,  i:uropean  IMuion,  I'aris,  .\pril  _'l.  191s.  Tlie  Weekly 
Dispatch,  May  19,  1918.  The  Finder  Industry  New.-,  pub,  by  the  Double  Duty 
FiuKcr  Ciuiid,  Auk.   1,  191S,      Mod.   Ilosp,,  .Ian  .  191H. 

3().    Keprinted  from  The  Font  Oiener,  .Ian,,  1919. 

37.  Opportunity.  —  I'amplilet  published  !>>■  Wi'stern  Electric  Co  ,  n.  d. 

38.  Nat.  Ass'n  Corp.  Sch(H)l.s,  191t>,  p,  403, 

39.  I'roc.  of  Fir.st  .\nnual  Con.  of  Nat.  .Xss'n  of  Emplovnient  .MV'rs,  1919,  p. 
33-3H. 

40.  .'^tanbrounh,  1).  (1  ;  Traininu  Factory  Eiicutins;  Ind  Man,,  Murih,  1919, 
p.  175-17(1. 

41.  Kelly,  U.  W. ;  Training  Mitior  Executnes  m  a  Shot  Ftictory ;  hul.  Man,,  <.,*('  , 
1918,  p.  31(i  31'.t. 

42.  Nat,  .Vas'n  Corp.  .ScIkmiIs.  191,'),  p,  704, 

43  liilbreth,  I'.  B.  and  I,.  M,;  The  Three  Postluo,  Plan  of  I'mmotion :  An  Am. 
Acad  ,  May.  t91ir, 

44,    i:ducatiorial  .Vctivili^s  m  the  National  City  Bank  of  New   ^  urk,  1917    1918. 

4.1,    llducational  Work  of  the  lord   Motor  Coni|.aii> .   1),,-,  19   ', 

4ti,  I'eiss.  !{.;  I't  rsonat  /i'» /(i^i"'t>/it/*  its  a  lia^i^  .for  Seiinti/if  .Management;  .\n. 
Am,  Acad  .  Ma.\.  191(1. 

47.  I'aull.  C  II  ;  Development  of  .\mtricani.:atioa  Projtcl;  Ind,  Man.  March, 
191U,  p    213-217 

48.  r.  .S.  Bur.  I.ab.  Stat,  Bul,,  No    202,  p    28. 

49.  Factory.  .Sept,,  1918.  p,   117 

60  I'roc    Nat     Safety  Council.   191.^.  p    .'',2.'. 

61  Welfare  Work  of  the  National  Cash  UeKinIt  r  Company. 
62.    Till' John  \Vana!ijiiker  ConiniiTeial  InstituO'.  19|.'i 

53.  Cadbur>'.  I'.  ;  Ejrpenmt  nts  m  Industrial  (Jryanaatiofi ;  London,  Luiigmans, 
Gfrrii  at  Cu,,  lrl2. 


f 


LIST  OF  referp:xces 


341 


54.  Rep't  of  International  Oarmrnt  Workers'  Tnion,  Am.  Fed.  of  Lab.,  1919. 

5,").  National  Cash  Retti.stpr  N'pw.  Oct.,   KtlO. 

5t).  Bu3s<'r,  S.  E. ;    Sunta  Fi   livuhria  Haiimn,  n.  li. 

57.  Bui.  Am.  Iron  and  Stoi'l  Inntitutc,  June,  Ktltj. 

58.  Nat.  .\M,s'n  Corp.  Scliools,  .June,  11)14,  p,  2.").'i. 

59.  LeistTsou,  Wni.   M  ;    I'lant  Oryan :     Circular  V.  S    Bur.  Lab.  Stat,   No.   5, 
April  28,  I'.tl'.t. 

1)0.  Employed'  Publicalwii :    Proc.  Nat.  .Safi-ty  Counril,  I'lIS,  p.  4US-t  ill. 

01.  Kimball,  H.  \V. ;   Funteriiiy  fiaiU  S/nrU  through  Plant  Faper;  Ind   Man.,  March, 
1919,  p.  24.5. 

B2.  Heller,  A.  C. ;    The  Mirror;   Charl.  a  William  Stores. 

63.  Kuctory,  Feb  ,  1919,  p.  2t>6. 

64.  iHCtory,  .March,  1919,  p   482,  484,  aud  486. 

65.  Factory,  April,  1919,  p   712. 

66.  Factory,  Jan.,  1919,  p.  102. 

CHAPTER   V 


1.  V.  S.  Bur.  Lab.  Stat.  Monthly  Review,  sq'i  .  .S..pt  .  1918,  p.  188. 

2.  Fitch,  .1.;     Where  Ttrrw  U  Mown:    The  .Survey,  Feb.  2,  IHIS. 

;i.    V,  S.  Bur.  Lab.  Stat.  Bui.,  No.f    144,  It.ii,  186,  21;!,  244;    Am.  Lab.  Leg.  Rev.. 
Vol.  VIII,  No.  ;i.  Sept  ,  1918. 

4.  Lee,  F.  S.  ;    Chap,  on  Fatigue  ami  Ocrupation,  Diseases  of  OrcuptUion  and  VocU' 
lioiml  llngiene:   id.  by  t!.  .M.  Kober  and  W    C.  llan^<on,  I'hil.,  Bluki.ston,  1910. 

5.  r.  S.  Bur    Lab.  Stat.  Bui.,  No.  221,  April,  1917. 

0.    Frankfurter,  F.,  and  Goldniark,  .1.;  The  Case  /or  the  Shorter  Wurl;  Day;    Vol. 
I,  Rep't  Nal    CoiiHUmera'  League,  191.'),  p.  204. 

7,  Fhjrence,    I'.    S.  ;    Question   of  Fatigue  from   the   Eronomu    Standpuint;     Rep't 
BritiBh  .\s.>H'n  for  Advancement  of  Science,  Manchester,  191.'i. 

8.  Frankfurter,  F..  and  Coldniark,  J.;    Vol.  I,  p.  rA>4. 

9     Health  of  Munition  Workers,  Rep't  Memo.  No.  IH,  1917. 

10.  Goldmark,  J.;  Fatigue  and  E^ciency:  Vol.  I,  Ki.^Mell  .Sage  Foundation,  1912, 
p.  l,-.9.  Jl 

11.  Williani.f,  F.  M  ;  An  Aclual  Account  of  What  We  hare  Done  to  Reduce  Our 
Labor  Turnover :    V.  S    Bur.  Lab.  Stat.  Hui  ,  No.  227,  Oct..  1917. 

12.  Fitch,  J.;    Hours  and  (iulimt :    The  Survey,  .Mav  12,  1917. 

l;t     Fisher,    I   :     Report   on   Salional    Vitality:     Committei"   of    One    Hundred    o 
National  Health,  Iniv't  Printing  Office,  Bui.  No.  ;iO,  1909,  p.  40. 

14.  //.)iir.'.  .)/  Work  Related  to  Output  ami  Health  of  Worki-rs  —  Metal  Manufacturing 
Industries:  Kesearcl,  Kep't  .No,  Is,  Nat.  Ind.  Conf,  Bd  ,  .luly.  19Ht,  ilii'  fifth  of  a 
Heru'H  of  sludieH  on  hours  and  output  in  the  cotton,  boot  aud  .iIiim',  wool,  and 
nilk  indii.stries. 

1.').    Frankfurter,  P.,  and  Cioldmark,  .1  ;    Vol    I,  p    Id;! 

10  I-'lorence,  IV  .S  ,  I'.tt  of  Factory  Statistics  in  the  I  uiottgation  of  I  niiuslrial  Fatigue  I 
Col    1  niv    StudicH  in  I'ol.  Sci  ,  N    V  ,  V.W< 

17  ConimonH,  .1  R  ,  and  Andrews,  ,1  H  ;  I'rinciples  of  Labor  Legislation :  N.  V., 
Harpir  A  llroH  ,  1910,  Chap.  V. 

18  r   S   Bur.  Lab.  .-i,it.  Bui.,  No.  2:i0,  July,  1917. 

19.  Branileis,  L.  I),,  and  (loldmark,  J.;  The  Case  agninsl  Night  Work  for  Women; 
Nat.  Consumers'  League,  Revised  to  March  1,  l'.U8,  p.  90. 

20.  Ibid. ;   p.  99. 

21.  Kent,  A.  F  S  ;  2d  Interim  Riporl  (on  an  investigation  of  InduRtrlal  fatigue 
by  phyaiulogieal  melhod.s),  lliiti..ih  Ilooie  Olliee,  London,  .Aug  .  I91<'>. 

22  I.everhulnie,  Lord  .  The  Sir  Ho.tr  Day  ami  Other  Industrial  (Juenlions :  N  Y., 
Henry  Holt  &  Co  ,  1919 

2.'l  Lescohier,  I)  II  ;  Industrial  Arridevls,  Ernployrrs'  [,iability  and  Workmen't 
Compensati'Oi  in  Mmnesotit .    ,\iri,  Stat    .\sh  n  ii  ,  June,  1911,  p    li.Vl 

,c4.    ivu'uinoM,   v.  M   ;    Social  insurance,    N.  "i.,  iienry  Hoii  ot  C o  ,  IvtKi. 


342 


THE    HUMAN    FACTOR    IN    INDUSTRY 


25.  Mo.  H.,  Oct.,  1917.  p    l.'j.j. 

26.  Taylor,  F.  W. ;  The  Prinnplea  of  Scientific  Management;  N.  Y.,  Harper  A 
Broa.,  I'Jll,  p.  d7. 

27.  Rest  Perxods  Jor  Industrial  Workera;  Sal  Ind.  Conf.  Bd.  Rep't,  N'o.  13,  Jan., 
1919. 

28.  Cadbur.v,  K.  ;  Exi>er\mentn  in  Iniiu-^tnal  i >^'ja'iization ;  London,  Lungmazis, 
Greeu  &  Co.,  1912 

29.  Fitch.  .1  ;    .\tal:inu  the  Jub  Wirrth  While:   The  Survey,  .\pril  27.  1918 
;iO.     Wtlfare  Work  cf  the  Mttropolitan  Lift-  Intttirance  ('ompany ;    ilep't,  1917. 

31.  Sunjcur,  S.  ;  The  Limitation  of  JIouta  from  the  J ntirnatwnai  Paint  of  View; 
Nat,  Conf.  on  the  Prevention  of  Destitution,  Westminster.  1912,  P.  S.  King  4  Son, 
p,  451), 

32.  V.  S.  Bur.  Lab.  Stat.  Buh,  No,  223.  April,  1917.  p.  59. 


CH.\PTEI{    VI 


n. 

7, 
8. 
>.). 

10. 

11. 

12 

13, 


Ind    Mail  ,  Oct., 
The  Dodge  Idea, 

120-121. 


139. 


137 

,./  Ihe 


Ford  Motor  Company,  1916. 
23(1.  July,   1917.  p.   140-147, 
What  thi:  (iurrrnment  Saya  about  Cotton  MilU; 


1.  Proc.  Nat.  Safety  Council,  tlth  annual  Congress,  part  1.  p.  9. 

2.  Pa.  Dcpt  Lab.  and  Ind.  Bui  .  June.  1917. 

3.  Young,  ,\rthur  ;    Practical  .Isptc/^  of  the  ^yaftty  Moiement: 
1917. 

4.  Eggun,  M,  J   ;    Safiiy   Work  thai  lieduces  (.'out  of  Accidi-ni 
July,  init). 

5.  California  Safely  News,  Feb.,  1917. 
Contests  for  Aeeulent  Pmention ;    .Survey,  April  19,  1919,  p. 
C.  S.  Bur.  Lab.  Stat.  Bui  ,  No   210,  p.  103. 
Pa.  Dep't  Lab    an.l  Iiul    Bui  ,  Feb.,  1917.  p. 
UW;.   Dec  .    19l(i,  p.  ,S4. 
L".  S.  Bur.  Lab.  Stat.  Bui,,  \.i 
,4  fir  'f  Account  of  the  K'litriittninit  Witrk 
F,  S.  Bur.  Lab.  Stat.  Bui..  No 
Hncliester,  .\  ,  and  Taylor,  F  ; 

pamphlet  243,  ChiM  Labor  CoMiiiiittee. 

14.    Correspondence  with  the  Conipany. 

l.">.    llayhurst.    K,    li. ;     .1    Surrr:/  of  I ndualrial   Hraltti   llaznrda  and  Occupational 
Diacnaeii:    Uep't  (Ihio  Stale  Board  of  Health,  Feb  ,  1915,  p    51,  104 

10.    Frankfurter  and  C.oldinurk  ;    The  Ci^c  for  the  .Shorter   Work  Day;    1915.  Vol. 
I,  p   2,57. 

Jones,  i;.  D.  ;    The  Admiuistriitton  of  In>f  i.^triat  Enterpri^iea. 
Price,  C,    M   ;    The  M.^lern  Faeloru ;    p    70.  232.  271,  1911. 
C,  S.  Bur,  L.ib,  Stat,  Bui,.  No.  207.  March.  1917. 

C  uiiinons,  J    R,.  and  .\nilrews.  J    B,  ;    Pr  inn  plea  of  Labor  Leijislition,  p,  321. 
Rieommended  Standard  Pretetice  on  Medical  Supervision  tn  Detroit  Plants;  An. 
Am.  Acad..  .May.   1917. 

22,     Health  of   .Munition   Workers:    Rep't,   Memo    No,   II,   1910 

Darhngton,  Thoinas;    Illnt^a  in  huiuatry  —  Ita  (\>at  aud  Prevention,  1914. 
Hubbard.  Charlie  L. ;    Factory  Water  Supply ;    Factory.  .May.  1919. 
Iloach,  .'.    '  ti  ■     lliniirnic  and  .Snnitart/  E'luipmrnt ;    Ind,    Man  .  Oct  ,   1917. 
Pardon-.      lu>dW,  ;    Il.alth    uid  I ndu^ti ,/ .    Sat.  Eve,   Post.  June  7.  1919. 
Shop  Liuhti:::    Uep't  Ind.  Com,  of  Wis,.  1914, 

Schere.scli,w-kv,  J    W,  ;     Thi   Health  of  Varment   Worki-ra ;    Pub,   Health  Bul., 
No.  71.  N.  Y  ,  1915,    rrea,sury  D.-p'l 

29     Winslow,  C.  E.  A.;    Proof  that  it  Pays  to  Ventilate;    Factory,  Feb,  1917. 

Clreat     Britain.  —  Health    of  Munition    Workers    Vommttlrc  ■     Memo,    No.    9, 


17 
18 
19. 
20 
21. 


23 
24, 
25 
26 
27. 
28. 


30, 
p   (Wl 

31 
Htallh 

32 

33 


Hams.  Louis  I  .  im.l  .Schwartz,   \e||e  ,     !><*   Coat  of  Clean  I'loth*     i;i  Terjns  of 
n.p'i  ..t  Hialth.  N    Y,.  and  N    Y,  Consuiiiers'  League.  I'JIH.  p    23. 
I      S    Hn     I  .lb    Stat    Bul  .  No    221.  April.  1917.  p    101. 
/•irt  friunh.oi  and  Safety  First  Mtthotl.t,     lOO'/t,  Ucl    aud  Nov  ,  1918. 


LIST  OF   REFERENCES 


343 


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2  Thompson    W   G  ;    Om.pataW  D..s,w...-   D.  Apploton  &  Co..  1914    p    10 

^^'^  \inwonh' F 'k  •  Th,S,mlliern  I'acifir  Compayiy-^  Railroad  Hospital:  Mod. 
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344 


THE   HUMAN   FACTOR   IN   INDUSTRY 


37.  Foiiw,  R. ;    Personal  Relationship  na  the  Basis  of  Scientific  Afanaoement;    An. 
Am.  Acad..  May,  lillti. 

38.  Confidential  Itcport,  .M(>dical  Drpartmont,  Mrt.  Lifp  Ins.  Cd.,  1918. 

.■59.    Welfare   Work  fir  A'm/i/ii.vc'  m  Industrial  Kxtablinhments  in  the  United  Stattt; 
U.  S.  Hiir.  Lab.  .-^tat.  Bill.,  Nu.  J.",(),  VAi  ,  1919. 

40.  Industrial  liulli^tin,  Colorado  Fuol  and  Irun  Co.,  Sept.  2."),  1918. 

41.  Mil.   Life   Ins.   Co.,    Tiiliercutosis   Snttaturium  for  Employes;     Mt.   McGregor, 
Saratoga  County,  X.  Y.,  I'ampliU't  Met.  Life  In.s.  Co. 

42.  The  Survey,  Oct.  29,  1910. 

43.  Dublin,  I,.  I.  ;    Causes  uf  Death  by  Occupation;    V.  S.  Rur.  Lab.  Stat.  Bui  ,  No 
207,  Marrh,  1917. 

44.  KinK,    11.    M.  ;     li      .ration   of  Working    "fTirirtirn  afirr  Sanatorium  Treatment; 
Report  10th  .-Vnnual  Meet^nu  (jf  .Nat.  .•\.ss'n  Study  on  I'rcv.  of  Tub.,  1912. 

45.  Mook,  II,  i;.  ;    Meiiiral  Wiirk  and  Sanilnhon,  .Inly,  1911. 

4(1.    Industrial  Health  Hazards  and  Occupational  Diseases  in  Ohio;   Ohio  State  Board 
of  Health,  p.  402,  1  . .-  .  191.".. 

47.  Hanson,  Wni.  C,  ;    Altitude  of  Massachusetts  Manufacturers  toward  the  Health 
of  their  Emplanes:    Hul.  of  the  Hur.  of  Lab  ,  .Ma.ss  ,  No.  90. 

48.  VoReler,  W.  ,1.  ;    Emjdoyment  of  I'lituul.i  I.iaiiiiu  Sanatoria:    Rep't  i 0th  Annual 
Meeting,  Nat.  Ass'n  for  Study  and   I'rev.  of  Tub  ,   1'.I12. 

49.  Cooke,  M.    I..;    Scientific   Matiaytrui  nt  and   I'nemplouminl :    \n.    \tn.   Acad, 
Sept.,  191.5. 

50.  Selby,  C.  D.  :    .1  Propo.nd  Bureau  of  hidiisiriul  Safelu.  Sanitation  and  Hygiene 
to  be  Maintairiea  on  the  Muluol  I'lan  :    .\in.  .1.  of  Tub.  Health,  .Nov.,  1910. 

51.  Fisher,  Hoyd  ;    Mithmis  of  /{rdwin,/  the  Labor  Turnorer ;   An.  Am.  Acad.,  May, 
1916. 

.52.    Pub,  Health  Bui  ,  No.  99,  V    S    Pub    Heal-'i  .<vrv..  1919.  p.  30. 

53.  Pror.  Nat.  Safety  Couneil,  p.   190  :<nn  ,  1919. 

54.  V.  S.  Bur.  Lab.  Slat,   Bui,,  .No.  2:iii,  .luly,  1917,  p.  51. 

55.  ProeeediuKs  of   the  Conference  on   .So,.i.i|    Iti.-urariee,    l",    S.    Bur.    Lab,    Stat 
Bui.,  No.  212,  p.  4.'.8,  June,  1917. 

50.    Strunsky,  Ilynian ;    .4   Workmin's  Sanulorium  fur   Workers:    The  Survey,  May 
29,  1915,  Vol.  XXXIV,  p,  19ti, 

57.  Joint    "       d  of   Sanitary   Control,   Gth   and   7tli    Annual    Reports,   and   other 
data  secured  f'         Dr.  Price, 

58.  Llliott,  Iv.  \V,  ;    Hou   We  Keep  Our  Men  Will:   Factory,  Feb.,  1919 

.59.    Austin,   M.   A.;    Medical  Inspection  of  Factory  Employes:    J.   Ind    Hygiene, 
June,  191U. 

CHAPTER   VIII 

1.  Official  Bulletin.  July  22,   191S. 

2.  Feiss,  R,  .\,  ;    Personal  Relalionship  as  a  Basis  of  Scientific  Manaoemrnt :   An. 
Am.  Acad  .  May,  1910. 

3.  Fisher,    Prof.    Irvuig ;     .\djushnii   Wayes  to  the   Cost  of  Living;     .Monthly    R, 
Nov..  1918. 

4     Drury,  H.  B. ;    Srienlifir  .Management:   Ixindon,  Longnians,  Green  4  Co.,  1918. 

5.    .4  Ciimparatn-e  Study  uf  Wage  and  Bonus  Si/stims  :    Ktiierson  Company  ;   Gantt, 
H    L, :     ll'orA    Wages  and  Profits;    New  York,  The  I'.nniui'ering  Magazine  Co,,   191t). 

t),    Maroi,   II,;     The  Crcatin    Impulse  m   induxlry;     New   York.    IJuttou   &  Co 
1918,  p.  42, 

7,  Cadbury,   K,  ;     Eiperimmts   m   I ndu^lrial  Organization;     Lond  )n,    I,ougniand, 
Green  &  Co.   1912. 

8,  Tht    Wilfirr   W-.rk  .'f  the   Milr..puhliii,    I.if,   Insurance    Company  fir    Us    Em- 
ployes, 1917, 

9,  Williams,  J,    M,;     .1'.    .\,h,al   ,lr,,..,„(  „/  U7,„(    If,    /,uit  Dune  lu  Uedace  Our 
Labor  Turnonr:    An.  ,\ni    .Xcad  ,  .May,  1917 

10,    Proe,  of  the  Nai    Saht,\  Council,  1910,  p,  97, 

Meets  Them;    An.  Aiu.  Arad  ,  M;i3,  TJlti. 


LIST   OF   REFERENLKS 


345 


12.    Shipman,  L.  H.;    hic\Un,7  the  Worker.^  Inlrrr^i:    10(1':^.  Jan  .  1019. 

i;i.  MilliT,  I,.  A. ;  InCTiiawg  File  Clerkf'  Elhciency  hy  a  Bonus;  l(K)'r,  July,  Aug., 
1918. 

14.    Sterns,  W.  D. ;    Slatuiarihziti  Orniimtumx  aiul  lialix :    Ind.  Man.,  May,  1918. 

l.'i.  .Marston,  C.  A.;  A  Bonun  nhicK  I'ny-i  thi-  ExeciUxtc  fur  CiMmy  Expenses; 
100';.  April,  I'.IIS, 

II.  liui  ,'rr,  E.  A.;  Suggentw}  from  Employes  Help  I  lie  Company  Save  Moneu; 
An.  Am.  Ai;i>l  ,  May,  1'I17. 

17.  Lee,  J.  U.  ;  Thr  so-called  I'mfil  Shar\ny  System  of  the  Ford  Plant;  An.  Am. 
Aeiid.,  May.     '.lift. 

18.  Frufic  Shariny  by  Americn't  Employers:  New  Ynrk,  Nat.  Civic  Federation, 
lid  6. 

19.  Oilman,  N.  1'.;    .4  Divuierui  to  Labor;    R.Hton,  Houghton  Mifflin  Co.,  1899. 

20.  Burritt.  \.  W,  and  utberM  ;  Prufit  Slianny ;  New  York,  Harper  &  Broa.,  1918, 
p.  118  aq<i. 

21.  New  York  Tiiiiea,  .March  24,  1918. 

22.  M'.rnan,  S.  A. ;    T  he.^e  Plans  Saved  SoO.iJiX}  a  Y'ear ;  .System,  Nov.,  1917. 

23.  In.:    .Man.,  Jun.  .  191S.  p.  rM). 

24.  Adam.^,  T,  rf.,  and  f-mimer,  II.  I,.;  Labor  Problems:  Maemillan  Co.,  1909, 
p.  184. 

25.  Str\iis  in  American  Industry  in  War  Times;  Nat.  lad.  Conf.  Bd  ,  Research 
Report  No.  :i,  .March,  1918. 

26.  Bond,  Albert  S. ;   Why  We   \re  All  Stanai/ersinOur  !    ant;  Faetor>-,  Feb.,  1919. 


CH.M'TER   IX 


1.  Ranney,  0.  A.;   International  Harvester  Company;   Chicago,  III.,  Mod.  Hosp., 
August,  1116,  p    14* 

2.  Hialth  .if  Munition  Workers  Committee    Hip't,  Memo.  No.  3,  1915. 

3.  Pri.ude,  U.  ;    Welfare  Wn-k;    London,  G       -ll  &  Son.x,  Ltd  ,  191t),  p.  193. 

4.  Crum,  K.  .S. ;    Restaurant  Facilities  for  Shxiniard  Worked :    1      S.  Shipping  Board 
Emergency  Fleet  Corp.,  Indu.striul  It.  latioii:<  Division.   Phil.,  191-> 

5.  Uo.ssy,  C    ri. ;    The  Factory  A  ",p(o.i,'»'  Restaur. .U;    Ind.  Man.,  March,  1918, 
p.  237. 

6.  Eqxtipment  for  Factory  .Sem.       ':>< ,       ment 
Lamp  Work..j,  General  Electric  Co.,  CU'velai..!,  (> 


General  Service  Dep't  National 
1913. 

Hsociation,   1916-1917. 
iStrial  Enterprise ;    London,  LoDg- 


7.  Annual  Report,   Memo  ,  Mutual  Service 

8.  Jones,   E,    D. ;     The  A'Imtnislration  of  // 
mans.  Green  &  Co.,  1917,  p.  30it. 

9.  A  Thumbnail  Sketch  of  the  Fileiie  CoDperatite  Association,  1913. 

10.  Welfare   W^nk  of  the  MetrapoUlan  Life  Insurance  Company:    Report,  1918. 

11.  Employee'   Handhiiok:    Winche-ter  Rept'atinK  Arn  s  Compau    ,   1916. 

12.  Cadbury,   E  ;     Eiperiments  r    hulustrial  Organi'ixon;    Loi.  ion,   Longmans, 
Green  &  Co  ,  1912,  p.  93. 

13.  Health  of  Munition  Workers  Committee,  Rep't,  Memo.  No.  11,  1916,  p.  4. 

14.  The  Prepur  .     •;»  of  Food  for  F  utory  Employes;  General  Service  Dep't,  National 
Lamp  Works,  General  Electric  Co.,  Cleveland,  Ohio,  191.^. 

l.'i     City  Restaurant  as  a  Out  Guide;    New  Y'ork  Times  Magazine,  Sunday,  July 
18,  1915. 

16.    Privileges  of  the  Employes  of  the  Miller  ,t  L.^k  Co.,  n.  d. 

17     Leverhulme,  Lord;    The  S\x  Hour  Ui     aiui  Other  I ndustrial  Questions ;  Heary 
Holt  0.  Co  ,  1919,  p.  IH4. 

iustrial  EstablishmerUs  in  the  United  States; 
1919. 
tson  Manufacturing  ComfHtny;    Mtxl    Hosp., 


I 


u 


18.  Welfare  Work  for  Employe 
S.  Bur    lab.  Stat.  Bui  ,  No.  2.W,  F. 

19.  Weber,  J.  J. ;    Welfare  Work  iJe 
Dec,   1918,  p.  488-489. 

L'll     Walker.  A,   K   :    Loiikina  beuoiid  the  Door  of  Welfare  Service  in  the  Department 
Store.    Mod.  Hosp.,  Aug  ,  1910,  p.  U'.t-122 

21.    Employes'  Welfare  Work;   V.  S.  Bur.  Lab.  Stat,  Bui.,  No.  123,  May,  1913. 


346 


THE    HUMAN   FACTOR    IX    IXDUSTRY 


22.  Dunciiti,    .1.    I'.;     ChiKiiio    Trlrphoni    Company.    Chiciigu,    III.:     Mofi     ^08p. 
Auc,  1916,  p.  134-i;j5. 

23.  Coinu.-i,    U.    T. ;     Wrlfitre    Work   of  Cincinnati   and   .Suburban    Telephone   Cc  • 
Mod.  Hosp,,  Jan.,  1917,  p.  75  and  70. 

24.  Lovojoy,    I'.    \V.  ;    Kii.-tman  Kodak   Co.,   Ruchtster,  \.    Y  .     Mod.    Hosp.,  ( 
191(1.  p.  349. 

25.  Latta,  S.  \V,  ;  A'.  <(  Hvom.^  f,,r  Railroad  Mm;  Hul.  Nat.  Civ.  Ki>d.,  No  V., 
N.  V  ,  1901). 

20.    Bu.SHiT,  S.  i:.  :    The  Snnia  Ff  RnuUnn  Room  Si/.slrrn,  n.  d. 

27.  Eqiui>meiil  of  Farlory  tiirnre  I>rpiirttuent :  Ueiiura!  S(  rvicf  Drp't  National  Lamp 
Work.s,  GciKTal  Elcrtric  Co.,  Clcvpland,  Oliio,  1913. 

28.  liruuii  A-  liiueluu-,  SI.  I'aul,  Mini,.:    .Mod.  Honp.,  .\ut;.,  1910,  p.  159. 

29.  Eir.crson,  .V.  ;  Behind  the  Scene.t  in  a  Department  Store:  Outlook,  Feb.  24, 
1915,  p.  45(1-155. 

30.  Hintz,  K.  H.  ;  Factonj  'i-  'i  Covimunity  Cij,lrr:   -Nat  .^afitj  Counnil.  1918,  p.  573. 

31.  Crankshaw,  C.  W.  ;  Prudential  Life  Insurance  Company,  Xewark.  N.  J.; 
Mod.  Hosp.,  Aug.,  1910,  p.  lU. 

32.  Parke  Dacis  .t  Co.,  Detroit,  M,rh.:    Mod.   Hosp.,  Aut:.,  1910,  p.   152. 

33.  Shuoy,  E.  L. ;  Factory  People  and  Their  Employers:  S.  V.,  Lentilhon  4  Co. 
1900,  p.  80  and  17.5. 

34.  .Jackson,  J.,  Soon  Dni.i  Chih  !<rr  Cirls:  I'roc.  Employment  M'g'ra  Conf., 
L'.  S.  Bur,  I.al>.  Stat    BuL,  Xo.  227,  l'-ii7,  p.  171. 

35.  Elliott,  \V.  ;    How  We  Keep  Our  Me;    \V,ll:    Fnftory,  Feb.,  1919,  p.  247. 
30.    Meeting  of  Oliircrs  of  Local  Coun<'ils  .\at.  .Safety  Council,  191S,  p.   143. 

37.  PanipliletH  pul>lislied  by  Industrial  Dep.artment,  Y  M  C.  \.,  N.  Y.  ;  Wayt 
and  Means:  .Imono  Industrial  Wirrkrrs;  American  Workingmen:  The  College  Man'* 
Opportunity. 

38.  Lee,  R.  E.  ;  Industrial  Serncc  m  a  Tire  Factirry:  Mod.  Hosp.,  May,  1917, 
p.  353. 

39.  Clough,  F.  i;,  :  W.l.'nre  Work  of  Homestake  Mining  Company,  Leadnlle,  South 
Dakota:   Mod.  Hos|)  .  .Ian  .  l!il7,  p.  74. 

40.  Jackson,  J.;  Straubndue  .fc  Clothier  Chnrun :  Froc.  of  Einploymcnt  M'g'ra, 
Conf.,  E.  S.  Bur.   l.ab.  St.at.  Bui,,  No.  227.  1917,  p.   170-171. 

41.  Gilson,  .M.  B. ;  Service  Work  of  Clothcrnjt  Shops:  Proc.  of  Employment  M'g'ra, 
Conf.,  E.  ,S.  Bur.  Lab.  Stat.  Bui.,  No.  227,  1917,  p.  1.30. 

42.  Welfare  Work  of  Kohier  Industries,  Feb.,  1917. 

43.  WelLs,  F.  ().  :    .\n  Kmplmjes   En<.nncering  Club:    Ind.  Man.,  June,  1919,  p.  443. 

44.  Taphn,  H.  B.  ;  Employta  at  .Macy's  .Vcu  York  Conduct  Welfare  Work:  ISod. 
Hosp  .  Oct.,  1910,  p.  25H. 

45.  Welfare  Work  of  Ih   Melropoldan  Life  Insurance  Company,  1917. 

40.  Walsh,  W.  M  ;  W,  I  fare  and  Efficiency  at  the  Same  Time:  M,xi  Hosn  ,  Aua  . 
1916,  p.  118.  1   .     "S. 

47.  Cary,  H.  ;   Keeiniy  Employes  Happy:   .Mod.  Hosp.,  March,  1917,  p.  232. 

48.  Lord,  C,  B.  ;    .{tU.lii.i  for  the  Working  Force:    Ind.  Man.,  Oct  ,  1917,  p.  44. 

49.  From  Boston  Transcript,  Oct.  22,  1913,  Cooliuge,  L.  A  ;  United  Shoe  Machi- 
nery Corapan.w 

50.  Factory.  July,  191,S,  p.  98. 

51.  Fierce,  I'.  S.  ;  Employers'  Welfare  Work  in  Iowa;  Bui.  State  University  of 
Iowa,  No.  13,  Dec.  15,  1!I15. 

52.  Interview  with  F.  Kohn,  Vice  Bresidont  International  Oarment  Workers' 
Lnion,  Julv  1\.  1919. 

63.    Uep'l  yf  International  Garment  Workers'   L'aion,  Am,  Fed.  Lab.,  1919. 


CHAPTER   X 

1.  Cadi   ry.  G.,  Jr  :    Ttmti  Planning;    London,  LongmaQs,  Green  4  Co.,  1918. 
p.  123. 

2.  Allen.  L.  H. ;    The  Problem  of  I  nduilrial  tfowino;     Ind.  Man,  Dec,  1917,  d 
39C,  404. 


LIST  OF  REFERENCES 


347 


3     Homes  for  Workmtm;   Southorn  Pine  Association,  New  Orleani,  1010.  p.  10. 

4,  Kenncfiv,  D.  R.  ;  Housiv  '  .  Employers  xn  the  Cnited  StaUa :  I'rorepdinga, 
Sixth  Nat.  Coi.:  'on  Houslns,  Ch  1017,  p.  240-2.^!.  ^      _,,,  .    r,      „. 

.■)  Groben,  W.  E.  ;  Modern  Indu.itriat  Housing:  Pub  by  Ballini^er  4  Parrot, 
Architects  and  KDRineers,  Phil,  and  N.  Y.,  I'JIS.      Purewcrd  and  p.  0. 

6.  FishiT,  Boyd;  Cood  Hounng  as  a  Reducer  of  Labor  Turnover:  Proc.  >at. 
Housing  .'\.^;'n.  I'.ii.s,  p.  1.%.  .     .       c-  u     ,n,^         ino 

7  War  llou.uio  I'robhms  m  America;    Nat.  Hou.^ing  Assn.  Feb..  101^,  p.  1U8. 

8  Uouainu  Ileltermrnl :   (,      rterlv  Pub.  of  N.'it.  Ho,l.^inM;  A.s.Vn,  .June,  1010.  p.  39. 
9.    Bruere.  K.  W.  ;    roHmruoj  th,   Trail  of  the  I.  »'.  11".;    New  York  Eveniug  Post, 

10     Resolution  Adopted  at  MeetinK  o(  New  York  Board  of  Health.  Oct.  5    1918. 

11.  Kepi  iif  the  r  S.  Hiiuxinii  Curporation  :  V  S.  Bur.  Indus.  Hou.smg  and  Trans- 
portation. Dec  ,  lOl.s,  p.  i:i-1.5.  ,        •.• 

12.  GirU'  Welfare.  Nut.  Catholic  War  Council  Committee  on  .-p.ciul  W  ar  Activities, 

Aug  .  1010 

13.  Wood.  E.  K.;  The  Housmy  "/ "'«  VnakdUd  iriyt-  Earner:  Macmillan,  1919, 
p    117-120.  2.'w-2.'?4. 

11.    Adams.  T.  S..  Sumner,  H.  L. ;    Labor  froblertu :    MacmiUan.  100<J.  p.  .i'L. 
15     Nolen,  .1  ;    Indusinal  Housing :    Cambridge.  Mass.  101.^,  p.  1.5. 

16.  Taylor.  (J  R.;  SatelUte  Cities:  D.  Appleton  i  Co..  N  Y.  and  London.  1915, 
p.  6,  35.  09-KKI,  237.  „  ,. 

17.  I.ee.  R  I".  ;  Hoir  Akron  (Irnppled  with  its  Housing  Shortage:  Procpf dings 
Sixth  Nat.  Conl.  on  Uouaing.  Oct.,  1017,  p.  tJO-00. 

18.  Housuf,/   I-r. , areas  of  the   Year:    Rep't  of  Sec'fy  of  Nat.  Housing  A.S3  n,  Oct., 

1917,  p.  399,  4(l'i  „  ,. 

19.  Magnu'son,  L.  Y . :  Housing  by  Emphoj-rs  ,v  the  United  SUUes:  Proceedings 
Sixth  Nat.  Conf.  on  Housinc,  Chieayo.  1017,  p.   lOri-120. 

20.  BuL  liur.  Lab.,  10U4,  Part  II,  p.  llO.s, 

21.  Monthly  Bui.  Am.  Iron  and  Steel  In-.itute,  No.  8.  Aug.,  1916.  p.  223. 
22     Bui    United  States  St<el  Corporation.  No.  7.  Dec.  1018. 

23.  Culpin.  E.  G. ;  Carden  City  Principles:  Nat.  Conf.  Prevention  of  Destitution, 
1912.  P.  S.  King  &  Son.  p.  202. 

24.  Hussel.  T.  .    Welfare  Projects  of  the  Cadburys  at  Bournnlle :    Dodge  Idea,  Nov  , 

25.  Take  your  Choice.  Home  or  Hovel:  The  Connecticut  Mills  Co.,  Daniclson,  Conn.. 

2(1.  Apel.  F.  ;  Housing  by  Employers  in  the  United  States:  Proceedings  Sixth  Nat. 
Conf.  on  Housing.  Chicago.  1017.  p.  254-257.  t-        t 

27.  Frankel.  I.ee  K.  ;  How  Insurance  Companies  Can  Help  Howing:  hirst  lown 
Planning  Ccjnf..  Boston.  Nov..  1013.  -,       rr-         - 

28.  May,  C.  C. ;  Indian  Hill,  an  Iiv'ustrial  Village  for  the  Sorton  (  o..  norcester, 
Mass.:    Nat.  Housing  As»'n  Pub..  No.  40.  .July.  1017. 

29.  Veiller.  L.  :  Indu.itnal  Housing  Derelopments  in  America:  Nat.  Housing  .\9S  n 
Pub.,  No.  47,  May,  1018. 

30.  Veiller.  I,.;  Industrial  Housing  Devitopments  »n  .4m->rira.  Nat.  Housing  Ass  n 
Pub..  No.  41'..  Mar..  1018. 

31.  Monthly  l.ab.   R  .  July.  1010.  p.  147-148. 

32.  Hamlin.    W.    A.;     Low    Cost    Cottage    Construction    m    America:     (ambriclge, 

Mass.,  1017.  p.  28.  .  ,  ,  ,.    o    T  f 

33.  Nolen,  .1.;  A  (.'..«/  Home  for  Every  Wage  Earner:  Address  I  .  S.  I^eaguc  of 
Local  B'Id'g  and  Loan  Ass'n.  .Ivily.  1017. 

34.  Whitaker,  C.  H.,  Arkerman,  F.  I...  Childs.  R  S  ,  Wood.  E.  E. :  The  Housing 
Problem  in   War  and  Peace:    .J'n'l  Am.  Institute  of  Architects.  1018.  .     ,      ,    . 

35.  lurniss.  S.  ;  Chap,  on  The  Workiy,u-in>man's  //..u.se ;  Women  and  the  Labor 
Party.  Ed.  by  Or.  M.  Phillips.  Huebsch,  N    V  ,  lois. 

3fi.    Housing  Workers  in  a  Powder  Plant:    .Purvey.  Apr.  2t').  1010. 


38.  Mo.  Hul    Am.  Iron  .■iird  Sle.l  Institute;    No.  li.  June.  1010. 

39.  Proud,  E.  U. ;     Welfare   Work:    Loudon.  G.  Bell  &  Sous,  Ltd.,  1916. 


348 


THE    HUMAN   FACTOR   IN   INDUSTRY 


40.    nr^y.nr  tlHohh:  Tho  riomlyrar  Tirr  and  Huhbrr  rompanv.  Akron.  Ohio,  I!)13 
p   ,1ti-»;t      '  '  '     '■'""""■*"'  •''"'■'   f'"-    '-'"■P'"!/'".-     Ind     Man.,    Oct..   lOi;,' 

4  Bro..fmrp"5,'-    "•  •"""■"'•  ■'    ""     ''""""'"  "^  '-"'""   '^"'"'-'•'"•.     Harpor 

4,t.    Warba.s«>,  J.  P.  ;    rohpftalxr.-  liuyxnu   inum,,  Emphue.s,  n.  d 
Asrir,  Bui,  Nn   .(()),  p.  i'(>-20.  i-"-p  i   oi 

!r     f,"";'",";'^»'  '^'--V'"-'-  '^X--    I     .-^   IJur    I.ab.  Stat,  iiul  ,  No.    12.1,  May,  ini.T 
4<).     Mixt.  Ilosp.,  (Irt.,  Htli).  p    ICii,  .>.i.i>. 

hJuh  V„'r!*'!;  "■     ^i'     '''J'.l'"""""  •^■"'■'"'  •"  Industrial   Wdjan-    Work:    The  Pub. 
nealth  Niirsi- (Juar  ,  .Ian,  I!I17,  p    7;i-7',». 

■IH.     Mud.  lliwp.,  ().■!  ,  pilfi.  I).  :i.li». 

49.    .Mod.  Ilo.-p.,  Ann.,  V.\\i\,  p.  1C,2 

Jan'!"l..U7;'p"n-7"''^"''"  ""''*'  '"  "'"'  "-^  "^  ^'""'''■'    '^'"'  ''"''•  "''"''''  ^urse  Quar.. 

/il.    Kort.v-I'irst  K.p't  of  Hur.  of  Indus.  Htat.,  Pa  ,  VMA-VHi 

Hi      Karlor>,  .lul.v.  I'Ms.  p,  :iK. 

H.y    .Mod    Ho>p  ,  .Nov  ,  V.ni],  p.  4:j:t, 

.^>4.     .Mo.  Hul    ,\i,i.  Iron  and  f<u-<\  In.siiiiit.',  \o.  2.  Fi'b.,  1014. 
p    .'■^-,'i.r''"*'  ^    ''  '    ^'"   ■""*■"'""  •'^"'   '''"■"'"""".■    -N'w"l{,.puiDli<-.   Aug.    13,    1919, 

56.    Mo.  Bui.  Am.  Iron  and  Steel  Ins-ituv,  No.  7,  July,  11114. 


ciiapti:h  XI 

225,  41;'^  4*]'.?™'  '    ^'  '    ■''""'"'  '"■""■"""      ""'^-    ""'*  *  <"".  Nf    Y.  1013.  p    11.5, 

'^■"^''"  /■ ^"^■' ',  '.r'";'  '■""■  '  •'' ""'  '■"'•  ■'''^"  ""!•  ^'"  ^^'f.  I'MH  p  7  0 

■I.    <  oninion.^  .1    H.  ;    h,.l„>lri,il  i;,«.l„xll :    .Mrdraw-IMI    V>]'\ 

/'.^,:::  u-;';;^::;:^2'y;~;;;:;:™r''',,:{;r;;  ^r-  ■"■  -^  '•"-'"" ■ 

^   ^_t.,    (»n..ll..,l,h  ..n.KH.l  ,1,/,    /„.,„r,„„-,   f,„„„„.„„„  /,•,,,•,,■    folwn.ln,..  K,.b    1010. 

Annual  1  W,T  s  V'"" "'"'  ";'■"■';'  ^' ''  '"  ""    ''•■"■''  •""'"•    Tw,.n. v-tt„rd 

Annual  Urp  t  I     S.  CoinnjiR-ioniT  of  l.iilior.  PHIS,  p    |.s     '|'i    Ipl    I'll 

I  .  ^   llur    l.nb   ,siiit    Kul  ,  No   jij,  11117.  p    t.to  .(7.-, 

0     ChandNr     \V      I    .     /.;„.„/„«,,•    Hr,„fit   .l,««-,a,.,m.,  .■     1,„|     Man.    .Ian,    K.-b 
Mar  ,  Apr  ,  .Inni'.  .lulv,  I'Ms  .    <  "•  . 

V.  s"u,::"":;:'s;a,  \i,f '^2,  .";"'^'  t^."z  "' "" ' """""""  "■'--'- '--  ■ 

l-«' U  ,'Mar';'l'M7;p.'^iK;"'"""'  '■ "■■"■'  '"—""'-""^  ' —  .    An,    I  abor 

10ld!'p'2!l|'2^i,;'''  ■    '''"""'"""■■""■'   -^•"'"-   '"■'-"^•■■'   ir.r/.T,     Ind    Man      M.r  , 

An.'L,''A:;;d'Mav;  loiirTW^-;;""""'" " ^  "■ "^-  '^ 

iv^-!  loprlrno.''-  "^  '"'"-'-'"- ••  W.M,  ,•„.„.,,..,„..,  ,,„,  „n,,„..«o 

Co.'piis"'''"  "'"""*""  "'""'  "^■'    " "'  t>.W"l/.,.     M.tro, tan   l.,f,.  In,nranr.. 

V   H   hL"",'^'^  J:",     u,'    v"""     ''""■'""•"""'    roH,i,irr,Uum,   ...    //.,,/M    In.ur.nct. 
U.  8.  Bur.  I.ab   .-.tal     Hul     No    21.'.  1017.  p    .V.i.s  Wo. 


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421-429. 

I't.    Ins.  Vcar  M  .ok,  Sportator  Cn  ,  1!»1!>. 

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21.  Corri'spoiidcncc  ol  thr  Mitropoiiiau  I.iie  Inr'iiran'-i'  Co.,  Now  York. 

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Xi.  Tucker,  (i.  I)  ;  rhy:irnl  Ks'imiiinUnn  of  Kruplnijr^i  Ent/'iiinl  in  thf  Mnnufiicture 
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26.  The  rrohlim  of  /Vri.i»Vm.i ;    Hul.  Nat.  fivie  I'ld  ,  Jan..  l!ll(>. 

27.  Pl(in  for  Kntiiloyrs'  I't  nmon.-^,  IH.-t'tb^Ulij  lirntfittt,  and  I n.'iuritnre ;  .Arneriran 
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25.  DawMoii,  .\I.  .\I.  ;  S'Tvxt-i'  J*tn:<ionH  orni  Pfnaion  FuioL-> ;  l'.  .'^.  Hureau  Lah. 
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29.  Hrodr<ky,  li.  .1.;  Sorxol  timl  Frotirnnl  Innuvmri- ;  I'ralernal  Monitor,  Ian. 
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no.    Moiilhl.v  It   ;    Mar  .  1919.  p    119, 

:il.    Ihini,  A.  II,,  lioliiii^ciii.  I.    (i   :    .1  Crr.lil  I     i.»i  I'rimrr:   .Iiil.v.  19IS.  p.  i:(, 

32.    Compnny  .SViririi;.s  oud  Loon  I'lnnn;    Hill.  ^     ,.  As.-<'n  t 'orp.  .Sehtxiif*.  Nov..  1917. 

;J3.  Chandler,  W.  I,.;  Fi'iiinrml  A\i\<  for  Kmidoyr^-,  Ind.  Man,  Oct.,  1917,  p. 
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.■14.  Hurrill.  A  W  ,  I)enni-.,i,.  H  .-^  .  Ca,.  i:,  V  .  Ileilruan.  I!.  K  .  Kendall.  11.  i',  ; 
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:i.'i.  Riichesler  lleraM,  .\pr  1,  I'.il'.t.  Ivi.ilnian  Ki)dak  Ce  .  I.ttlrr  In  Emplo^im ; 
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.3fi.    Ham,  .\.  H.;    PropU'n  lionl.s:    Kussell  Sane  I'ljundaliun,  Aug  .  191(1. 

37.  How  i  h'rtfd  fhtr  Mtii  from  l.oun  .<hftrk-' :  1)\  the  .Service  Manager  of  a  Michigaa 
Manufaetunnt!  I'lant,  l'aclor>     .Mar  ,  I'.il'.i,  p    l.'i'.l-4(il. 

CH  M'TF.Ii    \II 

I  Drijoni^irni  Ihi  Emphojmml  Ih  juntmrnl :  Ilandl'iiok  on  Fmploynient  Manage- 
menl.   1',  S    Shippini!  ltd    Kiiierdenev    I  leet  Corp. 

2.  I'er-*'!!!.  II  .*^  .  t'  it-rsiti/  Sr.'o'ol.t  of  Itii-unt  ■t-^  ond  tfn  Tromirti;  ol  Kmploijmml 
ExrrultrrK:    An     "un    ,\ead  ,  .May.   1911'.. 

:l.  S'lln.C  I)  :  Sl:idf'  •■!  th<  M.doolo'ol  Surnvnl  Cor,  ,,f  Industryil  H'er<.r«,- 
Kill     I'uli    llealili.   r    S    I'.ili    Healih  Serviee.   \,,,  W'.i 

4,  l,ei,-*i'r»*on.  W  M  :  Ernplotjm*  ol  Mooot/rmfnl,  Employe  Heprenenlntxon ,  '^}oi 
Iridii^lrid  Demoirori/ ,  \di|ri><^  ai  Nat  .\^«''n  I '.mplnyment  .M'u'rs,  May,  1919,  I'rinled 
bv   I',   S    W'orkina  <''Hiditions  St  rviee. 

,5,    I  .  S    H-r.  I.al)    Stai.  Hul  ,  No    221,  p    .5.51. 


Ki;V     lo    HIHI.Kx;!! APIIV 


Am    .A^m'ti  Ifid    Pli\**   uTid  Sur^etniK   — -  .\iiieriean  ,\'».Horiation  of  (nduntriftl  Phyai- 
ciaii^  and  Stun*  "o-* 

Am    Am'ii  I.al)    I.eKi;*    —  ,\mirM':in  .Aswieialnm  for  I.almr  l.eKe^lation. 

Am    .1    Care  nf  CnppIeM         Atneiiean  .I'liirMal  for  the  < 'are  of  ( 'nppleH. 

Am    .1    I'uli    111  al'li    —  .Amiriian  .loiirnal  of  I'ulilie  lliallh 

.\m    I  iilx.r  letji.*    |{    -    .American  j.altor  I.etfi^^lation  l{e\  i.  w 

Am    .'^lat    A»»'ii  (J      -  .Xnierienn  .Slali'liral  Aiwoeialieii  (^uarterlv 

An    Am    .\eaci         .Annals  of  ihi'  .Aim  rii  an  Ae^.ilenv  .,f   j'oliiii'al  and  .">oenil  Seirnce. 

Hul    ''Lie     lull    liiHi  H.illeiin  o(  the  ChieiiKo  I'lihi  reiilom..  Iii^titiile 

ItuI    liid    Cuiiimiiuiioii  of  (liiio     -  Hiillitiii  of  the  lii(lu.'<lrinl  C'oiniuinnion  "f  Ohm. 


350 


THE    HUMAN'    FACTOR    IN    INDUSTRY 


,    u""'    ^,'\  '?'■'"    "'  ^^''    ""''  '"''    ~  n>'"'  im  of  the  Pennsvlvania  Department  of 
Labor  and  InduHtry 

Col.  Tniv,  Stii.lus  in  I'ol.  Sci.  —  Coluinhia  Cniveri-ity  Studies  in  Politieal  Srimce 
Con    of  Nit.  A!..-.n  of  i:mpioymom   .M^r-   —Convention  of  the  National  Asso- 
ciation of  [•,m|jloymint  ManuKcrs. 

Health  of  Monitiui,  Worker...  -  H.altli  ui  Muiiitlon  Workers  Committee  (nriti:.L), 
Mmi.'»try  of  Miinitinns 

Ind.  Mriii     -  Industrial  M;inat'emeiit  Mriiriijipe 

I  Am.  In.Mtitut,.  of   Architeets.  —Journal  ul  tl„.  Ainiriran  In.-titute  of  Arehitecta 

J,  Aiiier,  Med.  .\-'r,.  -  .lournul  of  ihe  .Vineri.MU  M.di -al  A....oc-,ation. 

J.  Ind.  IlyK,  —Journal  of  Indu.^trial  lly^-iene 

Med     Hev     of  l!ev,  —  Medl,    ,1   lieview  ,,f  Uevietts. 

Mc«i,  Ilijs   —  .Modern  llo^iiital  Mai.'.i2ui(  . 

Mo,    liul.    Am     Iron  A-  Steel   Inj-titutr.  -  M,  -,,1]..    i;„i|etin  of  the  Amerieau  Iron 

and  Steel    In.-illlute 

M.)    Hul    Dep't  lleallh  —  Monthly  Hulleiin  of  the  Departini.nt  <.f  Health 
Monthly  U    --  M.mthly  Hevi.w  of  tli.'  Inited  States  Hureau  of  Labor  StatiMiea 
Nat.  A.-.-  n  (  .>rp.  School  -.  —  National  A>..oeiali.,n  of  ( 'orporation  Seh.Mjlw. 
Nat,    A.^sn   study  and    I'rey    of   Tub.  -  National  A^.soeiatiou   for  the  Study  and 
I  revcmtion  of  Tubereulo«is. 

Nat.  Civie  Vvii.  —  .\ali(jiial  Civie  I'ederaiion. 
Nai.  Hou.-iina  As.s'n.  —  National  lloUMint;  Assoeiatioii 
Nut.  Ind    Conf.  Hd.  —  Naii.inal  Indu.-tnal  Conferenee  Hoard. 
Nat.  Soe.  of  \  oe.  i;d.  —  National  Sonety  of  Voeutional  Kduration 
la.  I)e,,-t  Labor  and  Ind    liul   —  Monthly  Hulletm  of  the  I'l  nn.^fylvania  Depart- 
ment of  Labor  and  Industry 

I'roe.   Nat.  Sahty  CouiM-il.   -  I'r  i.  • .  dm,..  ,,1  ih,    National  Safely  Couneil 
I'ub    Ilea  th  Hub.  V    S.  I'ub    Ib.alil.  S  ry    -  I'ubhe  Health  Hulletm  of  Ihe  Tnited 
States  Hi      th  Serviee. 

Tub    ll.alth  Nur-i    (Juar.  —  I'liblie  H.ahh  Niir-iim  (Quarterly 

Hept  of  Itur,  of  Indus    Slat,   I'a     -  I!,  port  of  the  |!nr,-a,;  of  Industry  ami  Statis- 
tiei)  of  rennsylyani.i 

Uep't  Ind    C-om    of  Wis   -  Keport  ol  the  In.lustnal  Commission  of  Wisconsin 
I .  b.  Hur.  Lab.  Stat    liul    -  KuM,  tin  of  the  Imled  States  Bureau  of  Labor  Stativ 
tics, 

V    S    Depi   „f  A^ric     Hul.  -  Bulletin  of  il„.   I  „i,cd  Slates  I),  partnieiit   of  Ann- 
culture 

r.  S.  Ship.  lid.    !:„i    I'leet  Corp.  —  In. i,d  States  ShiiipiuK  Hoard  KmerKenrx   lleet 
torpora'ion 

v.  S.  Sti'el  Corp     -  rmied  folates  Steel  Corporation. 


NOTFC 

fiince   the   writing  of   these  ihapters,    the   followioK   important   publicalion-   have 
opt"  an  .1        I  hese  ari>  of  spi .  lal  in'erest 

O,  i'^'Tm' i":  '-;' "t"•Io^    "'"■*'  ■'''"      '  ■■"""'"•■'■   '"'  "'  '<'''•■"■•>■-•  -  ""  ■•  Hl^eial  I.ihrarie.," 
Link    Ibnrx  .     ;   h:mi.i...,m,',l  l;u,l,,l:,uu.     N.  Y.     MacmiHan  ( 'o. 
.M'ick,  llirrv  I...  Imliintrxnl  Mtiluxnr  n'ul  Suriflru.     I'hila      Saunders 

D..'!'.''l!»iu'pp'',4',J'rt''''    ''"'*"'"   "'"'   ''"'"'"••''    '•/"""•■«,    Indu-inal     Mni,,,Ken,rn.. 

Hamsey,  H  lU.rt  I ..  ,    (■•/r./.r-//,,,,,,  Oru,,....       N    \       Appl.ii, 

Spaeth,    ItcMiold    \  ;    />,„,.„„„   ,.f  ,.„,^„,  ^„  tndu,lru:    Inlu-i,,.,:    M.,,,,,^,.,,,,,,,, 
MTieslKKinniiiK  111  laiiuary.  1!CI» 


INDEX 


AbBenroa,  labor  loss  from,  05 ;  in- 
vostiKiitious  of,  t'>»')-f)7. 

Absontvi'ism  ronords.  doducti<)ris 
fr  "■    V.r2. 

Acruic'  i     unuiff,  :<07-;jO'.t. 

Acci  -its,  .  hcdulc  of,  a  measure  of 
fatiRue,  \IC).  IL'O-I'.U;  slicht  re- 
lation between  ni(  lit  v\  -k  and, 
123-124:  schedule  if,  for  ditl.  vnt 
days  of  week,  12S;  daily  distribu- 
tion of,  129;  growtli  of  movement 
for  prevention  of,  l.i.'i-lSO :  possi- 
bility ()•  preventinc  lori-l.'57: 
physical  exnrainations  a  preventive 
of,  110;  wearing  nf  unifnrni'^  a 
preventive  measure,  I'lJ;  elli- 
eicnry  affeeted  by,  20'.).  incmcy 
rewards  as  preventive  of,  210- 
211. 

AdverlisiiiK,  as  a  uietlmd  i>f  8<H-urinK 
applicants.  .'!2-.'M. 

Ak;'.  as  a  predispusiiiK  factor  in  in- 
dustrial disea.scs.  1111  1."). 

Akc  litnil  for  employes,  ex1en.-<ion  ol. 
■1(). 

Akron,    industrial    housinn    at.    2I'm 
2(>.s. 

Alexander,  .M  ,  cited  l-i?.  lH'.»; 
data  collected  by.   I'.U 

Altnian  (V  Company,  rest  moms  of, 
23r> ;  Kyiixiasium  niainiai.ii'd  by. 
241 

American  .\:;sociation  of  Indu  trial 
Physiciiins  and  Surireons.  Kl.'i. 

I.' 


iinpany.  nanlcn 


American   liridt"'  <  "r 

inn  prizes  of,  JsCi. 
ArnirKiiii  I lutimlr]!.  magazine.   1.1. 
Aineri<a:ii7.uli  in  jilans  for  employes. 

it'.»   100.       tlie     safety     inovcnient 

and,  14' 
AniPric'i      Loconiotive      ("oiupany, 

»pe  1  '.!  truiiiiim  system  nf   'il 
Aiue       in     Museum     of     .■^.ifi'ty,     or- 

KHIlUlltloii   .it.    |.,li 

.1, 


American  Pulley  Company,  instruc- 
tion of  new  eniplovos  by,  91. 

.American  Kolliim  Mill,  reading  room 
for  forei^rn  workmen  at,  104. 

American  .■>tcel  and  Wire  Company, 
special  traininc  siven  selected 
salesmen  by.  94. 

American  Telephone  and  Telegraph 
Company,  rest  room  of,  235; 
pension  system  of,  314. 

American  Tobacco  Company,  ox- 
pcriment  by.  in  selecting  sales- 
men. ,">J. 

.Vmerican  Viscose  Company,  housing 
devel'ped  at  M.arcus  Hook  by, 
2('iS,  273,  2S0. 

American  Woolen  Company,  rest 
rooms  of.  2.'i(). 

.Vnnuity  system  of  old-age  insuranco, 
311   312. 

Applicants,  methods  of  si'curing, 
for  jobs.  2s  IT.  :  ^  uree.s  of  recom- 
nii'iidations.  30  32;  advertising 
for.  32  .3  1.  scouting  system  for 
seiiiiiriu.  31  3."i ;  us(>  of  psycho- 
logical tests  for,  ,").">-.')S. 

Application  blanks,  u.se  of,  29-.30 ; 
subjects  covered  on.  .'iO  ,'jl  ;  valuo 
of.  IP  way  of  permanency,  ,')1  .')2; 
more  time  recpiired  in  hiring  im- 
plied by,  .'■)2, 

Appraisers'  Olhce,  New  York,  (redit 
union  in.  323,. 

Apprentiieship  schools,  introduction 
of.  ,s."i  s7  .  railroad.  S7  ;  coiipera- 
tion    iif    [lulilic    schools    and.    n7 

■SS 

.\pprtiitic(  ~.|iip  system,  welfare  work 
coniiecteil  viith.  <i  S;  brc  ikdiiwn 
of  old.  Ml  hi  ,  of  Natioii.il  City 
Hank,  New  York,  97  9h. 
.\rbeiter  Him:  SMn.itonuni,  lO.^i 
.Arnisirong  < 'ork  ("oriipany.  iIihihI 
wi.rk  f.ir  cnipl"yes  of.  179 

>l 


3o2 


IXDKX 


Army,    sralc    fnr    ratine    nliili(y    of 

(ilfircr.-i  in,  .54-,">.'). 
Arruiim'tnciit    of   ('iiii>l()viii>'nl    oflirc 

75. 
Artifii'i;il   illuiniiKition,   standiirils  ,,( 

Atchisiiii,     T.ipcka     :uul     S:ima     IV 

H.    U.,    :i|iiircnli('fsliii>    .school    of, 

.^7  ;    ri'st  ami  rocrcatioii  icjoms  of, 

2S7.  L'.'fO. 
Alhlotic  as.^jociatioiis,  cniijloyps',  J,"):i. 
Aihli'tic  ticlds  for  I'lnploycs,  21S-L'1<I. 
Athlolics  (luriiiu;  iiooii  lioiir,  L'JI. 
Attoiidanco.    corrt'dion   of    had,    (i.") 

07;      I'ffiiiciii'v     alTfctcd    liy.    20!); 

futility  of  fines  for  l,ad,  L'il'.t-LMO  ; 

bonu.-io.s  for  Kood,  L'KI. 
Auditoriums    for    usi'    of    umplovc~ 

247. 
Australia,  old-am-  (x'tisioi,  -iwstcMi  in 

:iit;. 

Av.Tv  <'oni[)any,  li^'utc.s  from,  on 
<o.st  cf  .safely  and  incdieal  work, 
140:  liuUctins  on  oral  liyt,'icno 
(tistriliuted  l..\  ,  17;). 

Uand.-f,  eni|iloy(\s',  2.')0  _'.">1. 

Harre,    Ma.s.s.,   Wool   Coml.inK  ('"in- 

pan\-,  hou.»cs  huilt  li.\-,  27(1. 
lia.schall  for  (■miiloyc:^,  i'.',  i   ;>.-,.-). 
Masic  wa^c.  fixing  tli<>,  201   20:i. 
liatli.s     provision     for.     in    factories. 

14>    1  HI. 
Hi'lKUini,    insurance   of   minim;   I'om- 

Iianies'  cniploxes  in.  1 1. 
Hi'nelit   as.-!oeialions,  >'mplo>es',  2H7  ; 

'■ooperation      ..f      emplcjvr.s     and 

ftnployi's  in.   .I'M  Wi) ;    emp|o\ers' 

jud«n;ent       of,        :ioO;      msuranre 

cirrird  liy  mendiei.^  of.  ;jo.t  ;    oM- 

ani'  I'enetits  p.iid  liy,  ;{12. 
lUac  k    ('ompai..\,    \aratii!i.s   for  em 

IiIijyt'H  of,  i.ti. 
Blackford.  Kathcrine,  eile.l,  .".:i. 
Hluiizy    mining   coinpuii\ ,    lal.or   :,,| 

ministration  (.>■.  lo. 
Hlind,     Vocational     Irainint'    of    the 

!<1  02. 
"HIinil"  and     open"  adverli.sin^  for 

iippliriinl.'i.  .(2   :i:t. 
Hloomrield.    .M,  ,cr.    anal\s,s   of   joh.s 

at   Maiiiliertrcr  store  l.y.    1 1 
boinjscs     to    employees.     t(,    reuicdy 


lardinpsn     and     ahsontecism,     07; 
to     prevent     apridpnt.s.     210-211; 
for  yearly  sor\  ico.  211. 
Honus  melllod^^  of  waups,  204  200. 
Hookn  for  emi)loyp.-).  104. 
Boston   limploynient   Mana^prs'   As- 
sociation,  27;     analysis  of   causes 
of    labor    turnover    suggested    by, 
t  2. 
Bournville    Works,    pveninR    dassoa 
at,    102,     v.acatioiis   for   employes 
of,    I.{1  ;     fire    protection    at,    l,")i) - 
HiO.   im  :    refreshments  served  af, 
2:U   2:i2. 
Brick  eonstniction  for  houses,  270. 
Bridgeport,  Conn..  liousinK  problem 

at,  201,  211s. 
Brooklyn    Kapid    Trinsit    Company. 

health  bulleiins  issued  1>>-.  li»<». 
Brown,    Biyelou    .V    C,,.,    noon   hour 
diversions  at.   JH;    social  gatlier- 
imrs  of  emplo\es  of,  j.Vl. 
Brnere,     HobeM.     investigatitms    bv, 

202. 
Bull  linn  and  loan  associations.  20.'i 
2fl>;     .an    important     .  .iniriliution 
to    coiiperativo    credit    movement, 
MS. 

Bureau    of    U,,rkin«    C.,n,liiJons    of 

I   .  S,   Oeparlnient  of  l.ubor,   1  J, 
Burham.  clul;  house  at.  21)1. 
Burke,    Mr,   of    Detroit    .'steel   i'rod- 

uctst  'oiiipan.N-.  II. 
Burritt.  .\.  .>^.,  217. 
Burroimhs    .\ddin:'     Machine    C  .ni- 

|'an.\  .   salesmanship  school   of,  <MI 

'.'I:   meetinns  of  executives  of,   loi. 
Bush       I'ermiiial      Company,     hcalili 

work  of,  2n7. 
B.\    Produit    Coke    IM.iiif,    hoii.se    de- 

\clo|inient  plan  of,  .'Ml. 


Cadl.ury         Works,         prolit-sharnin 

scheme  at,  210. 
Ciidillac     Motor    Compaiiv,     mutual 

beni'ht  association  of,  JO'.I. 
'    ifelerias     for     employes,     22H   22t(  ; 

cquipnienl    of.    22'.t;     cost    of   food,' 

22'i  2,il  ;    menus  and  iliet  iu,  2,'12 

2;f:f. 
Californi.i    labor   camps,    luiug  cuu- 

dilloiirt   II,,   2li2. 

C'uuips  lor  fUiijloyen,  .'I'J, 


INDEX 


353 


•^asino  Torhnifal  Xieht  Srlim  !, 
K.'ist  Fir -iliurKli.  .S4  >.'). 

rhiu,'llpr,  \V.  L.,  .•itudy  of  nuifual 
boiii'fil  associations  l)y,  i;!)7-lii)S. 

rharlcH  William  Stores,  plant  ort^aii 
of.  107. 

Checks,  puymcii  of  wages  in,  L'L'O - 
221  ;  self  ilentilyinK,  221. 

•"hcnoy  lirothers,  tpstini;  of  em- 
ploye ly,  5(i;  (luestionnaii'  ii.sod 
by,  G'.i:  cntrinrc  tests  as  a  basis 
for  promoti'  it,  7.};  care  of  em- 
ployes' e\os  at.  ISO. 

Chirago  Telephone  ('oni|iany.  rest 
rooms  of.  230;  social  clubs  of, 
-■•54. 


240-247  ;  open  to  the  enmmunitv, 
20'i-201. 

Clul    rooms  for  employes,  244-  24."). 

flub.-  employes',  242,  2")();  edu- 
cational, 2.')2  25:5 ;    so<Mal.  2.")t. 

Colleges,  courses  at,  in  labor  ad- 
mini.-tration,  bi ;  .seeurint;  of  em- 
ployes from.  :i.">. 

Colorado  Fuel  and  Iron  Company, 
health  education  conducted  by, 
I'.IO ;  housiim  development  by, 
2tiO ;  company  stores  of,  2h4 ; 
health  work  of.  2S7  ;  recreational 
activities  of,  2(10;  educational 
work  of,  201. 

Columbia      I'niversily,      courses     in 


oinpany. 


Clacagc   ruU-rculosis  Insiituic,  work  ,      employment  management  at,  b?. 

of.  IS.    is;!,  istl.  '  Combinaliori        |{ul,lH>r       C 

Child   labor,    arc  ideal    ii>i    iinTea.sed         blind  employe^  of.  02. 

'j-V.   bll.  ('(.miiiillee,  the  workshop,  22:5. 

Childs.    R.    .'^.,    suggcitior,    by     con-    (  onimonweallli     Kdison     Company, 

eerning  land  co^ts.  277.  ;       suggestion  .system  used  by.  2i:{. 

China,     e.vperiments     in     labor     ad-    Community,  attitude  of  the,  toward 
_  ministration  in,   is   lit.  j       labor  administration,   T) ;     the  eni- 

Choial  societies,  employes',  2.")1.  plo.MT  and  the.  200   202. 

Cincinnati,       housing       of       factory  '  Conununiiy  health  wcjrk,  2sC,-L>ss. 

workers  in,  2(ili  207.  (  ompaiiy  hospitals.  Isl    ls_'. 

Cincinnati.   I'niversity  of,  College  of    Coniiiany       houses,       274  27.").     .S'«?e 


Kngineering  at 
Cincinnati    &    .-^uburlian    Telephone 

Company,     rest    rooms    of.     2;{l.. 

vacation    iiome    for    cnipl  \es    of, 

210. 
Cities,   niox-enienl    of  f.actories  away 

from,  207. 
Clark      Thread      ^  ompaiiy,      liealth 

work  of.  2s7. 
Cla.\  ton,  C.    1"..  (juoted,  77. 
Cleanliness.     pre\ention     of     iliseasi^ 

b>',   14t  :    \  ariou-  lienetils  of.   Ms. 
Cleveland      (  litTs      Iron      Company. 

enmmunilv  ilub  house  of.  201. 
Clevel.'ind    Foundry   Coiniiany,    plan 

followed  by,   uiili   pl.int   pli\  siciari. 

ISO 
Cleveland    llarrlw.are    < 'otnpain  ,    re- 
sults   of    r.|iorlel    working    d:i\     at, 

lis 
( 'limes,  dent  i!,   optic;, I.  and  iiie.li,  :i|. 

177   ls|,  I'll.   I'tT. 
Club  houses  for  employes,  211   2l.'i: 

different    tvi«-.s  .,f.  ;.'4,')  j-td ;     sue- 

ceaacit   unil    failures   of    plutui   for, 


Housing  coipjitions. 
Company  slore~,  js.i   L's."). 
Concerts      and      entertainments      as 

noon  hour  divi-rsion-.  J  1 1    LMJ. 
Concrete     construction     for     hoii.ses, 

270. 
Connecticut  Mills  ( 'ompany.  housing 

policy  .,t.  -'71. 
Consolidated    ,<,ifcty    I'in   Company, 

blind  emplo\es  of,  02. 
<  oiitoMUital    .Motor   Company,   <-afe- 

lena     at.     2:il;      niaiKigi'inent     of 

restaurant  at,  2:t.f. 
I  ontinual  schools,  lO.i. 
(■(Hpperative  stores,  •js:<  ;    educ.itional 

\  .ili.e  of  so-called,  L'S."). 
I  '"riiell  (  'ollege  of  Fligineering.   bi. 
( 'orrespon  lence    classes    f^j     iraiiiiiig 

employes,  O.'i   '.Mi. 
< 'o-^t    of   iixiiiir,    basing  of    «ai'es  on, 

20-'. 
Country  I'lubs  fm  employes,  JIO 
Crane     Coiiipan.x  .     ine.i'.al     depart- 

mi-ii'    est,ibli>lied     b.\.     1(;4.     17«; 

tubcruulufi^i  ftaiialunuiu  of,  182. 


354 


INDEX 


Credit  unions.  321-323. 

Crpusnt  Steel  W.irki^.  I;ihor  ndniinis- 
tralion  in.  11). 

Crippled,  vocational  training  nf  the 
!tl-92. 

Crocker-Wheeler  Crjinpany.  employ- 
nient  of  blind  persons  by,  ('>!,  92. 

Cultural   ela.s.ses   for  emiilove.s     101- 
102. 

Curti.s  -Xeroplaiic  Corporation,  vesti- 
b\ilo  sohool  of.  Si). 

Curtis  I'ubli.sliintc  Company,  results 
to,  of  inirodiK'tioii  ,,f  centralized 
cniploynient  bureau,  2."> :  principles 
observed  by.  in  euKawng  appli- 
rant.s  for  positions,  :il;  securing 
of  employes  from  s.diools  by,  3."> ; 
job  specitication  lilank  used  bv.' 
45;  method  use<l  by,  f,,r  filing 
application  lilanks.  ."i2  ;  judgment 
of  applicant's  personality  by  em- 
Iiloymeiit  inanauer  of,  ,').t  ;  u.se  (,f 
psychold^ical  t(sls  l)y,  ,-,7;  rule 
books  for  eniplojes  of,  (,l  ,  up. 
prentice  school  fur  compositors 
maintained  by,  SC, ,  rest  rooms  of, 
235;  .summer  ('ainp  for  younyer 
employes  rjf,  i>i(). 


Dancing  during  noon  hour,  210  211 

Darlington.  Thomas,  quoted  ,,1,  com- 
pany stores.  JM. 

Dartmouth      College,      .\mos     Tuck 
.School  ;it,  i:i. 

Dawson,  M,  M.,  cited,  315. 

Deere   and   Company,   cost   of   labor 
turnover  at,  70. 

Denm.irk,  ohl-age  pensions  in.  .ilC,. 

Dennison.  H.  .s.,  i;i7. 

Denni.son  .M.'inuf.icturing  Comjiany. 
results  to.  of  introduction  c4 
eenlrah/ed  eri.ploymciit  bureau. 
25;  employes  secured  from  schools 
»iy.  35;  rule  book^  for  emr.loyes 
ot.  I'll  ;  rcdunion  of  l;,|,or  turnover 
lit.  71  ;  ir.oi-lers  of  employes  at. 
73;  training  class  f,,r  new  em- 
plo.ves  of,  ',)();  special  Iraniing  Inr 
foremen  of,  <»,-.;  promotion  ph,,, 
used  by,  i»7;  health  i.ullelin.s  and 
pamiihlets  i.ssued  li_\.  I'l!);  rust 
room  of,  ■_':(.(.  i>.3'l. 
l)enial     ilmics.     in     luduMriai     con- 


eerns.  177-179;  of  women  gar- 
meat  workers  in  \ew  York  Citv 
197.  ^' 

Department  store  rest  rooms,  235. 

Detroit,    Visiting    Xur.se   Asaoeiation 
of,  190. 

Detroit  ICxeciitive.s'  Clulis,  study  of 
sanitary  standards  by,  140. 

Devine,  K.  T.,  cited  on  old-age  de- 
pendency. 310. 

Disability  pensions,  315. 

Disea.se.  o.'cupational,  and  its  pre- 
vention. 1  12   14(). 

Disiiensary.      .S',v  Medical  c.'jrp. 

l>od(/r  1,1,  n.  magazine,  1.3. 

Dodge  .NIanuf.icturing  Company,  em- 
ployes' cooperative  club  organized 
by.  2,s;j ;  emi>loyes'  benefit  as.socia- 
tion  of.  2!)7-29s:  Thrift  Club  of, 
320. 

Dold      Packing      Company,      profit- 
sharing    and    inanagement-sharinB 
at.  225. 
Dressing  rooms  for  employes,  151. 
Dii   Pont    Powder   Company,    teach- 
ing of  Kiiglish  to  employes  of,  100. 


Ivistman  Koilak  Company,  health 
bulletins  i.ssued  by,  199;  .sug- 
gestion system  u.seil  by,  213,  215; 
Kodak  Park  provided  by,  2s9  ; 
stock-purchase  (jjan  of,  321. 

Eclipse    Park,    houses    at      ■'74-''7'i 
277.  "      ' 

Economy    of    shorter    working    dav 
llf.lj_>. 

Edison    Company,    forms    u.sed    by, 

for  referet ^.  ti_' 

Education,    need    for   industrial,    77; 
pulihc     iirovision     for     industrial. 
77   7s  ;    pl.ms  for  giving  a  iieneral, 
9S    1  10  ;     .,1,    li,-,,|lh    subjects.    197 
199;    work  ui.  for  (he  communit\- 
291. 
I-.dui  ation.al    activities    .luring    noon 

hour.  2»2-2).t. 
IMiicational  clubs,  2.'52-253. 
i;Hiricncv,  imi.airment  of,  by  fatigue, 
1!.!;    relation  between  wages  and. 
203  21,1  ;    alTiM'tcd    I  v     .tli'iidance, 
ai'>'ideiils.    and    c.M.pcration,    209. 
liope  of   proiii.ition   as   a  factor  in 
212. 


INDEX 


355 


Efficiency  engineer,  evolution  of  the, 
13. 

Efficiency  movement,  developnien 
of,  14-1,0. 

Emergency  equipment,  in  plant.s, 
173;   a  model,  17.j   170. 

Emergency  Fleet  Corjioration,  course 
for  instructors  given  liy,  SO. 

Employes,  value  of  labor  adniini.H- 
tration  to,  5-0;  methods  of  hiring 
and  holding,  20  ff.  ;  extension  of 
age  limits  of,  4(i ;  elements  de- 
termining selection  of,  47-03  ; 
inducting  and  retaining.  03-70. 

Employment  agencies,  private,  30- 
37;  special,  37;  rmlilic,  37-3,s ; 
the  I'nited  States  Federal  Em- 
ployment Service,  3si-3!t. 

Employment  dei)artment,  arguments 
for  introduction  of,  l'l'  (T.  ;  argu- 
ments for  a  centralized,  L'4-2S; 
methods  of  securing  iippiicants  l)y. 
2h-4(l;  use  of  job  specification, 
40-40. 

Employment  management,  college 
courses  in,  13. 

Employment   manager,    rise 

13  ;  use  of  foreman  as, 
securing  of  applicants  by 
(lualificalioiis  (.f,  :i.".l  :;3i). 

Employment  Managers'  .Xssociation 

14  ;    the  first.  27. 
Employment     oflice.     location 

arrangement    of,    7."> ;     n 
be  included  in  files  of,  70. 

Endicott  Johnson  Company,  swim- 
ming pool  limit  by,  2s',). 

Knyinriring  .Mii{}a:iiif .  M  n. 

Engineers'  rlul)s.  2.')2. 

Engis  (■liemi<'al  Works,  cfTect  of 
shortening  working  hours   .i.  122. 

England,  public  employmoni  .igencie-^ 
in.  3S;    new  IMucation  Hill  ni,  7n. 

English,  cla.s.seH  in.  for  employes.  It'.). 

Essen  Steel  Works,  welfare  institu- 
tions at,  11.  !',). 

Europe,  earl>  e.xperimei.ts  in  welf.ire 
work  in.  ->   11. 

Examinati.iMs.  psycholonical,  of  ap- 
phcanis,  .O.'i  .".s;  physical,  .')i»-ti2  ; 
U-netit  of  pcnodii'  phvsii-al.  lOO- 
107;  piupi>-,e  and  value  i>l  medical, 
l(iH-173. 


of  ihe 
22  23 
2N-4II 


and 
>rds    to 


Fxecuti\-es,  special  training  courses 
lor,  y,5-90  ;  bonuses  to,  for  savings 
elf ec ted,  213. 

Eyes,  care  of,  of  emploj-es,  17'.)-l;nl. 

Factory,  manufacturers'  magazine,  13. 
Factory  specials  for  employes,   200- 

207. 
i  Fairtield,  industrial  village,  274. 
Itanium,  ('.  (1.,  quoted.  4.5-40,  01. 
Fatigue,   meaning  of,   and  effect  on 
efficiency,      112-113;      causes     of, 
113;  causes  of,  inherent  in  machine 
producti<  ;i,     113-114;      means    of 
measuring.  114-110;   lack  of  varia- 
tion   in,    during    year,     week,    or 
day,  127;    variation  in,  during  the 
work  [leriiid,  I2.s-12();   rest  periods 
as  a  preventive  of,  12'.). 
Feiss,     R.,    quoted    on    employment 

nianag-'ment,  2.j. 
Field   &.   Company,   recreation   room 

of,  23.5. 
Field  days  for  employes,  2,50- 257. 
Filene  Sons  Conipany,  vacations  for 
enifiloyes    of,     i:il  ;      Cooperative 
.\ssociation   dining  room   at,   231  ; 
<'onimittee    manatrement     for    Co- 
operati\e  .\s.s(cialion  dining  room 
al,  232  233;    vacation  bureau  for 
employes    of,     25(1;      musical     or- 
ganizations at.   251  ;    management 
of  recreational   work  of.   257-25<.J; 
Saxings  and  Loan  Bureau  of,  319. 
Files  for  eniplo\nient  office,  records 

for  inclusion  in.  7<i. 
Financing  of  industrial  housing,  271- 

273. 
Fines,     futility     of,     a.s     reformative 

n.eihod,  20'.)-21O. 
Fire  protection,   need  for  and  meas- 
ures of,  15i)   1(,2. 
1  irestone  Tire  and  Kiibi  i-r  ( 'ompaiiy, 
club   house  of,    2-15;     housing  de- 
veloped at  .\kron  by,  20s. 
First-aid  kits  in  fai  tories,  173. 
Fish.  i;.  \l  .  72. 
Fisher,     lloy<l,     <|Uoted    on     cost    of 

l;ilH>r  turnover,  09  70. 
Fisk  Hubl)or  Company,  reduction  of 

acoiilents  by,   l;Js 
1  ilchbiirg     Ilmh    School,     part-time 
Byslum  lu,  M. 


356 


INDEX 


Follow-up  work  with  now  pmployps 
III  d."). 

Ford  Motor  ( 'oiii|):iiiy,   iiitroduclioii 
of  conlralizcd  cniployiiieiit   Imreau 
l>y.    and    ri'sulr-.     L'.>  L'(i ;      use    of 
application  blank  l)y,  ;i();    ,;,s{  of 
labor  turnoMT  at.  70:    transfers  of 
cinployos   at,    7:i ;     cniployniciil  of 
blind  and  crippled  by,  •)_' :    rc^^ul(^ 
of    KhkHsIi    classe.s   at.    (lit:     work 
<luy     at,      127;       lionus-for-good- 
ciinduct  system  at,  21.j-i;i(>. 
rorci«ncr.s.    plan.s   for   education    of. 
by  indu.strial  planl.-J.  !)S    101;   news- 
paper.s   supplied   for,    KM;     health 
cdiication  for,  H»!). 
Torenien,  as  oniiiloyment  mauat^ers. 
--' ;    complex  duties  of,  22;     aimi- 
inenls  against   use  of,   a.s  employ- 
ment  nuiiia«ers,   2:{ ;     relief  of,    by 
employniiMit        de|iartmeiit,        2C. ; 
.special  training  for,  '.).">. 
Fore  Hi\er  .>lupbui!din«  Corjioration, 
iutroducli.iii    <if    (inployment    de- 
partment by,  27  2N,    scouting  and 
ad\-crlisini;    scliemi-    of,    M  ;     ap- 
prenticesliip  .system  of,  in  ctiopera- 
tion    with    public   schools,    s7-,ss; 
promotion  plan  used  by,  97. 
France,    early    experiment.^    in    labor 
administration  in.   lU;    .societies  in. 
for     nnilual     aid,     2'.»:j ;      old-aw 
pensions  in.  :{Iti. 
Fraternal     socii'ties,     sickness     in-ur- 
ame    by,    207;     life    insurance    by, 
:!Oti;      (ild-a«e     benellts     Ijaid     bv, 

:ii2. 

Free  lunclies  for  emjiloyes,  2:!I. 

<::iin  sharint;,  I'laii  f.ir.  217. 

Ciantt  tn<k  ;,,,il  boi;us  system  of 
reniuncraiion  of  einijloyes.  200. 

Oardens  fur  employes,  2s,")  -2.^0. 

Carmeni  workers,  women,  in  New 
\ork  ('il\-,  I'.Miperalive  medical 
eaie  of,  p.)."p  |i.»7;  recreational  ac- 
tivities of,  2.")S   2."iO. 

Clary.  lai.ssez-faire  policy  us  ,,, 
housing  at.  270. 

<;av    !■;.  1'.,  217. 

(ii'n.     d    Cliemiial    Cumpany,    |.lanl 

oru.in  of.  10s, 
tieneral    LlectMcal   (.■oujiiany,   secur- 


inc;  of  employes  from  schools  and 

colleges  b.\  .  Ji,') ;   group  insurance  of 

employes  of,  ;{(),"). 
(ieneial    l{ailway    .'<i>;n:il    Ojmpany, 

job    .specihcation    blank    used    bv 

41 -J2. 
(Icrnian-American  Hutton  < 'ompany, 

■lo. 

(ieruiauy,  public  employment  aRon- 
lies  in,  ;j,s ;  system  of  industrial 
education  in,  77  7,s ;  industrial 
schools  of.  examples  of  continua- 
tion schools,  io:j. 

(iilbrcth,  Frank,  "FutiKue  Study" 
by,  l:iO. 

(iilbreth,  Mr.  and  Mrs.  Frank,  three 
positions  plan  of  promotion  put 
in  opc'ration  by,  DO. 

or- 


(iimbel      Brothers,      emploj-es' 


fiirard,  ,1.  \V.,  (luoied,  20:5. 

<  dee  clubs.  empKnes',  2r)l, 

Hood-conduct  bonu.ses.  21.J-210. 

'iooilric'h  Company,  iilant  or^an  of, 
110;  value  of  denial  clime  sliowii 
by.  177. 

Uooiiyear  Tire  mid  Rul)l)er  Company, 
'■Flyinj.;  Sc|uadron"  of,  itO  ;  meet- 
inns  of  foremen  of,  104  lU.j; 
plant  orKau  of,  liis;  housinu  de- 
veloped at  .\krou  by.  2(i.s  ;  stucco 
>  for     Iioiises      by,      270-277; 

_  h.,    -  jt;  ri'striiiioiis  of,  2M-2H2. 

CJorham  M.inufacturinn  Company, 
noon  liuur  diviTsions  at,  241; 
athletic  Held  nf.  21s. 

fiould,  E.  (;.,  cited  on  labir  turnover 
71. 

(ireat  Hritaiu,  societic-i  in,  for  mutual 
aid,  2!».'{ ;  old-.ai;e  pensions  in, 
31(1.      .See  Ihi^'land. 

fireenfield  Tap  and  Die  Cori..Mal  cm. 


eerinx    Cluli    of. 


:     in   field 

■  .  ■■foii  ;io7. 

medieval. 


l.'inployes'     Fngin 

10,-,. 
(iroup  in.surance.  ;!00  :iiii 

of  life  insurance.  :10|   ;!ll," 
(iuilds,    welfare    work    m 

0  S, 
(iuihl  system,  origin  ..f  term  "labor 

turnover"  in,  l.^i  n. 
(iun  clubs,  employes',  2.').->. 
(iwinn.    community    club    house    at, 

2'Jl. 


INDEX 


357 


dymnasiums  for  omployps,  241,  217  - 
24S  ;    <l;iMsc.i  in,  2,'i()- 2.')7 , 

Halpcrii,  Dr.  .lulius,  10.'). 

Hiilsey's  primium  wago  .'ly.stoni,  20,5. 

Ham,    .\.    H.,    ro-author    of    Credit 

I'liion  Primer,  ;i2;i. 
Hamlin.  W.  A.,  (nioted  on  cdnstruc- 

tion  of  liiiiiscM,  277. 
Haii(]l)()()k»  for  enlI)loy('^<.  (Vl. 

Hart.  Schaffner,  ami  Marx  ( 'oinpaiiy, 
experiments  of,  with  employment 
of  older  men,  4(1. 

Harvard  School  of  Busiue.ss  Ad- 
ministration, l:i. 

Hayes  MamifarturiiiK  Ccmipany.  re- 
sults to,  of  centralized  employment 
bureau,  20. 

Hayhurst,  K.  R.,  on  occupational 
di.sea.se,  142. 

Health,  n^l.ation  lietween  short  ho\ir,s 
and.  121. 

Health  education  for  cmiiloyes,  100 
101,  l'.»7    1!)9. 

Health  work,  oomnmnity,  2M'>-2.s,s. 

Heilman,  H.  K.,  217. 

Heinz  Company,  entertainments  for 
employes  of,  2."i4. 

Hercules  Powder  Company,  housing 
conditions  at,  270. 

Hershey,  I'a.,  ccjintiiunily  work  at, 
2.^0;  educational  activities  at, 
201. 

Hinli  schools,  jiart-time  courses  in, 
M. 

Hollow  tile  construction  for  houses. 
2711. 

Home  nursing  in  comiection  with 
in<lus(rial  plant>.  100. 

Homes  rpRistrat ion,  204  2t')."i. 

Homestake  Mining  Company .  recrea- 
tion l^uildin^;  of,  2  1.'>;  swimming 
pool  of,  2  Is. 

Homestead,  Pa.,  poor  ulitions  in, 

200. 

Hospitals  for  emploves,  lsl-l,s2, 
2.sti  2'- 7. 

Houses,  (vpe  of  company.  274  '.'7r>. 

Housing  I'onditions.   industrial,  2tiO- 
203:     virlian,    for    employes,    2(1:5- 
20tl ;    wli.Tc  industry    is   dominant 
factor    in    tlu'    cominunitv,    207 
-'&2. 


Housinc  costs.  27.">-27<l. 

Huliliai'd,     Charles     L..     article     on 

"Factory    Water    .Supply,"    cited, 

l.'.O. 
Huyck  and  .Son.s.  emplojes'   Iwiicfit 

a.ssociation  of,  :{00. 
Hyatt,  Dr.,  tal)lo  by,  17.s. 

Iceland,  old-a^e  pensions  in,  .'510, 
Illinois,  coiiperative  stores  orj^anized 

t).v  mint^  workers  in,  2s4. 
Illinois      Steel      Company,      evenini; 

cla.sses    maintained     by,     s5 ;     ex- 

lierience  of,  in  reducing  accidents, 

i:i7. 

Illness,  extent  of,  in  industry,  lO:?; 
an  inilustrial  i)roblem,  10:5-104. 

Indian  Hill,  induslri.al  villai?e,  271, 
27:5. 

Industrial  acci^Ient  instirance,  ,'507- 
300. 

Industrial  betterment,  2. 

Industrial  counselors.  1:5. 

Industrial  education.  .See  Educa- 
tion. 

Inchistrial  fatit;ue.     Sit  FatiRue. 

Inthistrial  Maiimjt  mcHl.  manazino,  13. 

Insurance,  for  wane  earners,  204- 
20,'. ;  sickness,  204,  200  :50:5 ;  life, 
:50:5  :i07:  old-aw,  ;500  317. 

Interborounh  Rapid  Transit  Coni- 
p.iny.  recreation  rooms  of.  2:i7. 

International  iMiuipment  Harvester 
Company,  club  hou.se  of,  24.">. 

International  Harvester  Company, 
reduction  of  ac<'iclents  by.  l:,0 
l:i7;  medical  examinations  of 
employes  by,  172;  Mutu.il  Hene- 
fit  A.s.-ocialioii  of,  200;  death 
iM'iielit  plan  of,  ;50.') ;  stock-pur- 
chas<'  plan  of,  :52(V-:521. 

International  Ladies'  (iarmeut 
Workers'  I'liion,  eciucational  ac- 
tivities of,  102  10:i;  recreational 
a<'livities  manat^ed  bj-,  2.")S.  .S,.e 
Carment  workers. 

International  TyifoKrapliical  I'niun, 
courses  ^iven  by.  si. 

Interview,  the  prelinnnary.  In  seli'C- 
tion  of  employe,  40;  tin-  second, 
r>:5 ;  the  follow-up,  04  (1.") ,  with 
employes  who  are  leaving,  72. 

luvahJily  iusuraucu,  ;il J. 


3r)S 


INDEX 


JftTri'.v      Maruifacttirirm      ronitninv  . 

f;ict(ir\-  rcyt:iiiraiil  :ft,  SiJ. 

.loll,  fitliiif;  tlic  cMiijlcisc  If)  the,  L'l 
■  )■> 

.loll  sciliim  liy  foroincn.  :::>. 

,Ioh  spctilicalioii,  doscriiitioii  of.  Id 
4.');  aihanlaLTC's  of,  ■],');  futiirr  n| 
45-  !(l. 

Joint  Hoaril  of  Saiiilar\-  ( ■oniroj  il„. 
!!•.">    ]\h\. 

•Josci.li  and  r.i-.>  (  ..iniiaii\  .  innliiul 
of  filing  api'licaiion  hlank-  !>>, 
51;  iniportanci'  of  uppli(  an; 's 
IK^isonaiity  cnipliasizc-d  hy,  .j:i ; 
tL'sts  of  enipioycs  l,y,  Afi :  niciliod 
of  instructini;  nt^w  ojicrativcs  usc<l 
l\v.  <J1  ;  results  of  introrluctioii  ,,f 
4()-h(mr  week  at,  119:  caro  of  vui- 
idoyos'  oyc's  hy.  IM);  wat'cs  and 
ITofits  at,  2()1-L'n2:  sicknc.-.  in- 
surance s\>.|i'ni  at.  .'illD-lioi  ;  pi.nnx- 
hank  system  at,  .Sllt-i^l't). 

Kaul  I.unihiT  Company,  housint; 
policy  i,f,  i;7i. 

Kauiton.  indusiri;,!  \  ilhitrc,  _'7). 
Kelly,    |(,    \V.,  (,u   nielhod,,  ,,f   ,-„.|cc|- 

ins;  eniplo\,.s,     ts-p.i;    .-mal.x -is  oi 

eilci  I    c.f  iran-lcr    ,-ind     pri^njoiiou 

hy,  71. 
'<"nd  dl,  II.  I'..  -17. 
Kcnl,      l'l. ,!..—,, r,        l;d.oi-at,,ry       tests 

of  indu.-lri.il  lai  iuue  h.\  ,  1  ]i\,  Ij  |. 
Kindierly     ('l;,,k     Company,     flciual 

uoiK  aniorc:  <nipl..\  ,■>  ii.  |7;i. 
Kinh,.,!    ,  .luipni.iii    .,1    111!,,  h    ro.iiiis 

and  I  :ifc.|cii;]<,  sj'.l 
Ko.j.dv    I'aik   Works,  simtrc-tioii  svs- 

I'  ni    It.  L'1;M.'1,"). 
Ko|i],  r  Industries,  I'ronre-s  (  luh  of. 

Kop.  I'.rolliers.  sc!f-Mip|.orliii^'  cafe- 
teria ,ii ,  j:;!), 

Koi;,,l,  :,,,,!  C.n.p.aiix  .  ilances  ar- 
ranr'd  h,\   union  ji,.  .'."is, 

Krupp  Works,  u.lfaic  msiiliitions 
of,  1  I.   I'J. 

J-ahor  adinini-tration.  fu,,  |i,,„  ,,f, 
1  IT  .  ornani/aii-.n  ,.f  departments 
"f-  -'  •'■  .  acin  111,.-  u  III,  unii-li 
'"""■'ncd,       .;  -t.mdaid-        |.,r 

e\alii.itin)i,    ;i  i,  ,     ..iimn-   and    his- 


tory of.  fi-12;  bocnines  a  pro- 
f<'ssion.  ]_'  i;{;  eollejrt.  courdca  in, 
hC  re.i.-,,ns  for  new  interest  in, 
11;  scnpc  of  ,irohlenis  of,  IH; 
;in  inlernational  e.\|ieriment,  IH- 
1";  ortianizalioii  of  dejiurtinent 
of.  .'{.'(i  IT.  :  imrpo.se  of,  .32f) ; 
neec;  h,r  expi'rts  in,  32,S-329; 
qualificalions  of  employincut 
manager.  .■i29-,3;«);  the  industrial 
ph.Nsician  and  medical  department, 
o;!0-:);!2;  department  organiza- 
tion, ;5:i2. 

Lahoratorv  tests  of  industrial  fatigue, 
llti. 

I.ahor   loss   from    tardines.s   and   ab- 
sence, t'l,'). 

I.ahor  niuintenanco  scr\-ice,  defined, 

.'!  n. 
Lahor  turnover,  dehnitions  of,  15; 
extent  and  cost  of,  lo-l'i;  causes 
of,  l(i-17;  economy  of  centralized 
emplo_\-mcnt  hureau  in  reducing, 
2.")  2t):  delinition  and  method  of 
compiitiim,  a(;reed  on  hy  National 
l^niploymcnt  Managers'  Confer- 
ence, hs;  estimates  of  co.st  of,  09- 
71':  anal.\~is  and  reduction  of, 
''•  il;  iraiishTs  and  [iromotions 
for  redia  iim,  7:i  74  ;  close  ro- 
i:ilion  hctuccn  accidents  and, 
111  112;  K'clucing,  hy  adcfjuate 
lioiisint.'  conditions,  2(11, 
I.ahor  unions,  .Sm  Trad"  unions. 
I.ahor  unrest  cau.sed  hy  had  housing 

conditions.  2112  2i;;j. 
I.ack:iw,inna    .'Social     Center,     Bo,ya' 

Cluh  of,  290. 
Lakesiile  Tres-.  (  'liicago,  apprentico- 

-hi]!  si-liool  of,  ,s7, 
l.:ind.    cost    ,,f,    il,    housing   develop- 

nienl.~,  277   _'7^ 
I..ircoli|,   Lur\',    1  1, 
l.ci-crson.  W.  .M,.  ,|u,,icd,  XiA  SM. 
l.c\.r  liiothcrs,  educ:itional  cluhs  of, 

2."..;, 
I.eviTliiiline.     Lord,     sixdiour     work 
day    favored    hy,    127;     i|uuted   uu 
rest  rooms.  2.'{l. 
Lihrarii's  in  iuilustrial  plants,   104. 
l.iei.'i'  .Miiliial  Iii-iiraiM,.  I'und,  11. 
Life  ii!~iirance  among  uorkmg  clasa, 
3Uii-iiUi.     ,Siit  lusurancc. 


IN'DEX 


359 


LiRhtinR  of  fantnrics,  l."2-15r), 
Linrnlii    Mcitur   ( '(imii'iiiy.    vcstihulo 

si'IkmiI  iif,  su. 
Loan  plans  for  ('ini)loycs,  .'!17-:i2.'j. 
L(jan  sharks,  cri'ilit  uni'in  as  a  means 


workers  in    N't-w   Vork   Citv.    I'li'i- 

I'.tT;    co^t  i.f.  1!I7. 
Mi'ilical     ilrpariiiiriit     of     industrial 

plant.  17:{  177.  :i:iii  :;:;_'. 
Mcilical  ciiuipincnt  of  jilant.  1  r:i    177. 


of    rusciiinK    <-niploycs    frnrn,    :i.'l-     Mcliral    i-xaii'inali"ii-    of    ian|)lo\c.-. 


324. 

Lookers  for  oniploycy,  l.Jl. 

Lorain,     Ohio,     poor    conditions    .at, 

2!)0. 
Lost  tinip  as  a  test  of  fiuii^uc    11.",- 

110. 
Lowe      HroihiTs      rouipany,      lliiih 

Standard  Cluh  of,  217,  2."):{. 
Lowell    factories,   early   activities   at, 

11-12. 
LoiccU    ()lfiri)icj,    factory    operatives' 

magazine,  1 1. 
Ludlow     Manufactiirinj;     Conipan.w 

community   health    work   of.    2>(i- 

2h7  :    clul)  house  liuilt  liy,  2s',J. 
Lurches,  length  of  period  f(ir,  2  Id. 
Lunch     rooms     for    eni|iloyes,     227; 

different  types  of,  227-22^  ;   eiiuip- 

ment    of,    22'.»;     cost    of    fncid    in. 

22a-231;    menus  and  diet  in,  2:;2^ 

233 ;      system     of     payment     for 

meals  at,  2;i3. 

McElwain  Company,  traininR-classes 
for  minor  execntiws  of,  IMi. 

Machine  production,  fatigue  iioisons 
cau.sed  by.  li:i    U  I. 

Macy  and  ('ompany,  rest  room  of, 
23 J  ;  summer  honie  for  employes 
of,  24!t-2.")():  educational  I'lul.'of, 
2.")3;    athletic  club  nf.  2.VJ   2.VI. 

Magazines,    for    numufacturer^,     i:i 
14  ;    for  employes,   104. 

Maison  Leclairi".  labor  administra- 
tion by,  10;  prolit-sharing  at  tlie. 
224. 

Management -sharing,  profit-sharing 
and,  224   22.">. 

Manchuria  Railway  ( 'onii>aii.\  .  wel- 
fare .service  of.   l,s    10. 

Manufacturers'  u.s.sociations.  1  1, 

Massachusetts.  state  insurance 
scheme  in,  :;il  :il2;  stale  regu- 
lalinn  nf  credit  unions  in.  :<22. 

Medical  I'are  ut  workers,  devi'lop- 
meiii  nf,  ir.:{-10!l. 

Medical    clinic,    i;f    wnmeii    garment 


ir,s   17: 

Medical  reconls.   101    102. 

Me.lical  stalTs.   1S7-100. 

.Mc.lieval  indu-lr\.  welfare  wi.rk  in, 
t)   ^. 

Ment  .Uty.  placement  of  Inw,  .'is. 

Metropnlitan  Life  Insurance  < 'nni- 
pan\.  bonuses  fnr  hm.mI  iinii'- 
keeping  at.  fi7  :  use  niade  b\  .  of 
part-time  system.  •^2  ,  instniciion 
in  stenography  i;i\en  b.\  ,  0  1  ; 
correspniidencu  cour>e  for  em- 
pln\es  of,  04-0.');  sewing  and 
millinery  classes  of,  102;  library 
of.  Hit;  plant  oPL'an  of,  107; 
VL(cations  for  emplovi^^  of,  l:!_'; 
\eiitilating  methods  at,  l.'is; 
physical  examinati^iiis  of  emploxcs 
of.  I'i7;  niedi  :il  trealnieiit  of 
employ, .s  of,  I,/,:  dental  work 
among  enip|o,\i's  of,  177  17s ; 
optical  clinic  at.  IsO  Isl  :  tuber- 
(ailosis  sanatorium  of.  Is2;  size 
of  medical  stalT  of,  1>0;  experience 
of.  showing  futility  nf  fines,  210; 
pa.\-en\('|npe  >,\-tem  of,  221  ; 
flee  luncheons  at.  2:il  ;  band  of. 
2.")I  ;  glee  club  of.  .'.",1  2."i2  ; 
atlil(>tic  association  of,  •_',");!;  g\  ni- 
nasium  <'lasses  at.  2.'jt) ;  eoiipora- 
tive  store  of.  2n3  ;  sickness  sur- 
\c.\s  made  by.  20(1;  Metropolitan 
."^talf  .•taxings  fund  of.  :{10. 

Mid\ali'  .-^Irel  ' 'onip.aiiy.  lateni's.s 
stati-tii's  at.  00. 

Miller     Lock     (' pan.\-.     handbook 

for  eiMploves  u-cd  by.  lil  n.  ; 
lunch-iirkci  -\stem  at.  2:!:f :  com- 
munit.x-  suignig  at.  2  II    212. 

Miller  Tire  and  Kubber  ( ■.inipany, 
housing  de\elo|,ed  at  \kron  bv, 
2t;s. 

Miiilie.|Ua  Hospital  of  Colorado 
I'lii'l  ,ind  Iroi    Company.  1"^2 

.Moi  k  Dr..  rernniMiendatioiis  of, 
concerning  iirst-aid  kit.  I7."i:  ciicd, 
l.S'J. 


MICROCOPY    RESOLUTION    TEST    CHART 

■ANSi  una   ISO   Itil    CHART   No    ? 


1.0 


I.I 


m 

.iiii  ^-- 
1^ 


Z5 

I  2.2 

2.0 
1.8 


1.25 


1.4 


1.6 


^     APPLIED  IM^GE     I 


360 


IXDEX 


Montcnmrry       Ward       Porporalinn, 
irroiip    iiisiiraiicp    of    (.ninlows    (;f' 

aor,. 

Morhiclit,\-,  uockly  reports  of,  11)1. 
Muoii.sliThcrK,    Hiii;(i,    tests    (leviscd 

by,  .')(). 
Munitions    \v(irl<crs,    cfTorts    of    loiifr 

working  day  on,  1J()-121,  IL':^. 
Murray    Hill    KvcnmK   High   School, 

New  York  City,  s:j. 
Musical  orj^anizations  for  cnipNn-cs 

2,")l»  ^-).>.  ■      ' 

Mutual   aid.    shifting   l)asia   of,   i.'i>;5  • 

societies  for,  i;u,i-2'J.j.     See  Heuelit 

as.socialions. 

National  .Association  of  Corporation 

Schools  14. 
National  ("a.sh  Retiister  Company. 
part-time  school  of,  S2  s;j ;  sale.— 
manship  school  of,  ;ii  ;  promotion 
plan  used  l,y.  <i7:  cultural  e.luca- 
""■'  at.  mi:  lilirary  of.  Iil|; 
suggestion  s.vstein  usecl  l,y,  _'!:!; 
Women's  Ccniury  ( 'l,,!,  .jf,  _>  IJ  ; 
howling  l<'ains  of,  ^.-i.", ;  |l,,ys'  i 
(iardcn  (  'ornp,in.\-  at.  L'sti.  i 

Nalioicil  Cailiolic  War  Council, 
reconuncndatiiins  l,y,  _'(;,-,. 

Naliiuial  City  Hank,  .\ew  York 
City,  coilnlinated  .-ysteni  of  edu- 
'•alioii  and  promotion  of.  !I7  '.Is. 

National  Safety  Council,  I  1,  i:{H; 
.safety  lectures  issued  liv,    |:;s. 

National  ,'<ociety  f,,r  I'roinotion  of 
Itidustrial  IMiication.  It. 

New  lOngland  Telephone  and  Tele- 
graph   Company,    rest    rooms    of 

■su\. 

New  ,I,-r.s.'y  Zinc  Comp mv.  he:illli 
woik  o|,  _>s7  ;  |,,, ivi.^ion  for  recrea- 
tion  li\-,   Jss, 

Newspapers  tor  eni|i|oves.  KM. 

NewtoM,  .\I:,.^,  Trade  Scho(il.  s:<. 

New  T.,v  C,,m|,aiiy.  I'mploynicnt  of 
hiind  M..rkers  |,y.  >.i_'. 

New  ^,,rk  (  ily,  private  ein|ilov- 
""■'I'  .i!'.r,ri,,<  i,,^  .{,1;  |,:ir|.tii,|,. 
pupils  in  high  scl Is  of,  s|  ;  enor- 
mous fire  losM.^  ,„.  1,M(;  coop,.ra- 
li\e  meilnai  care  of  women  irar- 
menl  workers  in.  I'l.'i    pi?. 

New    \  ork    i:di>o„   Conip.any.    tram- 


ing  rl.assos  for  omployos  of,  00,  94  ; 
Savings  .and  Lo.ari  .Association  of' 
;jli). 

Ni'^\     :  '.aland,    olj-ago    pcnsion.s   in, 
,'U(). 
;  -Night  .schools,  ffclinical,  h3->>,-,. 

Night    work,    generally   held    in   dis- 
favor,   VSJ:    objections   to  and   ill 
cllocts  of,  122   121. 
I  Noon   hour    .liversions   at    industrial 
cslablishmenls.  211)  2l;j. 

Nordyke     and     Marmon     Company, 
vestibule  .school  of.  s'.}. 

Northwestern     Knitting     Mills,     vo- 
cational training  clas.sos  of,  90, 

Norton  Company,  cost  of  labor 
turnover  at,  7o ;  use  and  y.alup  of 
dispen-ary  at,  l)j,")  \m ;  health 
bulli-lins  and  pamihlets  issued  by, 
li»!);  industrial  housing  policy  of 
-'71,  27:i. 

.Nurse,  th.'  pl.irit,  100. 

Occupational  di.sease,  prevention  of, 
I  I.'    I  V: 

Ohio,  (irsf  American  |)ulilic  employ- 
ment  bureau  in.  iis. 

'  »ld-ai;c  insurance.  .iOO  :{17. 

Oliver  Mining  Company,  vegetable 
cella's  built  by,  2Nl;  dub  hou.se  of 
200. 

Oik  la  Motor  Truck  Comr)any, 
coo|ieratiori  rjf  (ireeii  Ha.\  Hoard 
of  Industrial  Education  and,  M. 

0|iti<'al  clinics  in  industrial  estab- 
lishments, 170   isl. 

Orchestras,  employes',  2.")2. 

Organ,      .s'm   F'lant  organ. 

Outings  for  emplo\cs,  2,jt'>- 2,57, 

Output,  weight  of.  as  a  lest  of 
fatigue,  lit  II,-.;  increa.se  of, 
with  shorter  working  d.iy.  117 
l-'O;  etTerls  of  night  work  on. 
ll.':i;  I'.wered  by  Sunday  work, 
120;  seasonal  \ariation  in,  \r,l\; 
etiect  of  ||.|nper,iture  on,   l,">)i    l.^i?. 

Overlook    Colony,    industrial    village 

271. 
<>vertime,   expense   .if.    12.->,     reas.uis 

for  restricting,  12.-). 
Owen.     HoImtI.    f.tther    of    labor    .ad- 
ii'ini-lralion.    s   0 ;     results    of    ex- 
piTiinents  of,  in  wclf.irc  work,   10, 


IXDEX 


361 


on    crnnomy    (jf    shnrtor    wnrkiiis; 
day.  lie,   117. 
Oxfc)ril,     M:i.-.s..     canipaiijn     against 
tuberculii.-i.s  at.  IsJ-  Is."). 

I'ai'kard  Moinr  (  ar  ('•omiiany,  ap- 
jtrcutico.sliip  srliool  of,  sti-S" : 
rcrord.s  of  Iparncrs'  proyross  kept 
by.  ^^  Mt;  .schnul  of.  fwr  IraiiiiiiK 
cxerutivos.  05  (Mi. 

Packard  I'iano  ( '<)iii|)aiiy,  scicntifii' 
nuiiiauciiifiit  ac'ccptcd  by  .-^liop 
rouiinittop  of,  JLM-L'L'I;  uianaye- 
iiient-shariiin  at.  2'^o. 

Parki'  Davis  iV  Co.,  Women's  .\s- 
Bociation  of.  241.'. 

Part-tinio  courses  in  scliools,  .'i(>,  7S  ; 
vocational  training  in.  M  ;  beuefitrt 
of,  hi   ^2. 

Paternalism  in  hou.iing.  avoidance  of. 
269-270. 

Pelzer  Maii\if:icluriiin  ('"Uipany. 
schools  for  employes  (jf,  7','. 

Pennsylvania,  industrial  accidents  in. 

i;{(j. 

Pennsylvani.'i  Department  of  Labor 
and    Industiy.    (iiiestioui;aire    b\-, 

Pennsylvania  U.  H..  teacliint;  <>i 
English  ti!  employes  by.  Kill; 
portable  bunk  houses  used  by,  27',l. 

Pensions,  or  (jid-age  insurance.  .'5()".t 

ai7. 

Personality  <jf  api)licant.  importance 
placed  upon,  .">:i-54. 

I'ersonal  niei'lings.  101    ID."). 

Physical    ex.imiiialiiins    (jf    workers. 
.')!l  tl2  ;  an  accident  prevent  Inc.  lln  ,  I 
benelit   of   periodic,   ltiti~lli7;    rec- 
ords of.  I'.n. 

Physician,  oflici'  of,  in  industrial 
plant,  IsO.  iCiO  :{:i2. 

Piriiics  for  employes,  2.">(i-  2.'")7 

Piecework  wages  and  time  wages, 
2(«  201. 

Plant  chart,  the.  10;  for  .ise  in  pro- 
motions, '.IS. 

Plant    medical    eijuipmeiit,    17.(    177, 

:(;!()- :t:i2. 

Plant  organ,  the,  Itl.'p  ,  a  typical 
issue  of,  10,')  107;  special  points 
coni  criiing,  lli7  |(l^  ,  form  ;iiii| 
(■os(  of,  lO't.    frciiucniy  of  pul.iica- 


tion  and  distribution,  110;  quali- 
lications  of  editor  of,  1  10. 

Playgrounds  for  children  of  em- 
|jl.>yes,  2S!»-2<.M). 

Plumb  ( 'ompany.  attendance  bonus 
paid  by,  2 10. 

Point  system  or  bonus-for-quality-of- 
work  system.  211-212. 

Port  Huron  lOngine  and  Thresher 
( 'omiiany.  reduction  of  accident.i 
b.v.  bJ7  ;  iilan  of.  for  .'^hop  .'safety 
( 'ommittee.  lo'.). 

Port  .■Sunlight  Men's  Club,  2.j.'!. 

Postal  'relegra|)h  Company,  success 
of  creclit  union  in,  :52.'{. 

Prenjium  systems  of  wages.  204-2U0. 

Price.  Dr.  Ceorge  M..  U».^,  li»7. 

Prizes  for  gardens.  2^.').  2MJ. 

Product  i\ii\-.  elfect  of  labor  ad- 
ministration on.  4;  etTect  of  lighl- 
ing  on.  l.")2 -l.')3 ;  comparative 
effects  of  bonus  systems  on.  211- 
212;  increasing,  by  adenu.ate 
housing  conditions.  2tll. 

Profit  sharing,  growth  of,  10;  history 
of.  21C);  defects  of,  21ti  217; 
gain-sharing  an  ,0  tempt  to  remedy 
defects  of.  217;  a  possible  ap- 
|ilicalLon  of,  217  21s ;  condiined 
savings  scheme  and.  2bs,  210; 
labor's  attitude  toward,  221  ;  to 
Ix^  accompanied  by  numagement- 
sliaring,  224   22.'). 

"  I'rolit-Sharing."  book  on,  by  busi- 
ness authorities.  217. 

Promotion,  .systems  of.  OC)  07. 

Promotions,  re(luciion  of  l.ihor  turn- 
over b.\ ,  7^1  71;  hope  for,  as  a 
stimulating  elhciency  factor,  212 

2i:<. 

Prudential  Life  Insurance  Company, 

noonday  concerts  at.  212. 
Ps.vchological   tests  for   workers,  .").")- 

!}<> ;    function  of.  .^s. 
Pullman       Company.       paternalistic 

housing  \enture  of,  200  270. 

(jualily-of-work   bonus  system,   211- 

212 
(Quality  progress  recorils,  211. 

liaih'oail  appreiilict  -^hip  schools.  S7 . 
iiallroad  club  hou.ses.  2  1(). 


i[ 


3G2 


i\dp:x 


Railroad  Liability  Act,  ofToct  of,  17. 
Hailrnail  rest  rnoms,  2.'5()-2:i7. 
Kailriiads.     riMMJicul    i-:in"    Kivi'li    t'lii- 

I)l()yos  li\-,  liil. 
Rannoy,  (ii-nnrc,  iiuntcil,  .'Jil. 
Kayi'w>ky.  Dr.  <  'liarlcs.  Hi  .. 
Rei'oiiinirihlatinus  I'or  a|i|)licarils  for 

work,  :ii»  :i-'. 
Rci-onlinu'  and  ( 'otniuitiiit;  f'oinpauy 

of  I)a\loii,  \  .■-!  iliiile  sriioiil  of,  SS. 


Roach,  ,Iohn,  article  by,  cited,  158. 

Hobiiison,  Harriet,  11. 

Uobiiison,  I,,  (i..  co-author  of  Credit 

I'liioii  i'riincr,  '.i-.i. 
l{oclu'stcr,    X.    v.,    athletic    field    of 

Imttou   factory   :it,    L'l'.t;     bowling 

aiiioiit^  eini'loyes    if,  2,")."). 
Rochester.      I'riiversity     of.     courses 

in  eiu|)loyiiu'ut  inan.aKcnieiu  at.  13. 
Rowan  preriiiiiin  wai^e  sy.stein.  2()o. 


Record^,  iii  aliciiduiice.   (i.'i  t'tCi;     for  1  Russia,  company  stores  in.  2S-):. 

eni|ilo\  iiii'iii     "'lice.     T'l   TD  ;      lo<t- ' 

time,  as  a  iiic:i-ure  of  fati^iue.   llo-    Safety   committees,    oniployos",    138- 

IKi;    m.'dical,   l!il-r.»L' ;    .aliMaileo- j       131);    meetings  of,  139-140. 

ism,  I'JJ.  Safely  <levices.  l:!?. 

Recreation,    re^t    .ind,    _'L'f'j  IT..    2ns  -    Safety  education  lor  employes,   100- 

2!tl  ;    rooms  for.  231-210;     diirin«  :       101. 

no..n  h'lur.  2  10  213;    during  non-;Saf<'ty     lirst      movement,      13.'j-130; 

workini;    hours.    24 1:     club      )oms  j      arousing  workers'  iiitercst  in.  137- 

and     dull     houses     for.     214-247;         1  tO ;    self-insurance  as  a  means  of 


ludiloriums 


.'17:      (lymtiasiums,         forcing  int<'resl  in.  30s-3()'J. 


247-24N  ;     s\\im]iiins;    pocjls.    24s  ;    Safet\'  talks  durinc  noon  hour,  243. 

KTounds    Tor    athletic    tielils.    2 Is-    Salaries  of  workers.  20S.     Nee  W'aRes. 

240;      vac.itiiin       hurcau^,        2.'iO ;    Salesiiumship    Research,    Bureau    of, 

management     <i\     .aitivitics,     257- |       57. 

250.  Salesmen,  tests  for.  57;    schools  for, 

References  of  applicant-^.  02-0:5.  |      00-01  ;    system  of  special  training 

Held.    Laurie  .U\in.    health    work   of.         for  selected.  01. 

in  ( leoriiia.  2s7.  ,  Sanatoria    i-are    for    ornplovi'S,     ISl- 

Rcmiiner:il  ion   of   employes,    method  ls:i. 

ol.  2IIII  225.  Satniation.    as    ;i    factor    in    working 

Rcni\-      i;U'Ctric     C'onipati.w      health         conditions,  1  10    l.")2. 

educat  tonal  latapaiu'ii  o|.   lii!i,  .'^a\  itiiis    sclieme    and    prolU-sliaring, 

Republican     Metal    Ware    < 'onipatiw         ;i  combined.  21s   _M0. 

joli    specilK  atioii    blank     Used     by.     .S,i\in(;s  plans  for  employes,  317-325. 

15.  S:iwyer  I'ark.  development  of  croup 

Republic     Nb.tor     rruck     ("omp.itiy,         house  at,   271:     stucco  houses  at, 

Iilaiil  or^Mii  oi,  pis.  i,'77. 

Rest     and     recrc:iti..'i     rooms,     2.U      Sa\on  Mills,  provision  for  recreation 

210;       cost      and      >upet  \i'-ion     of,         at,2sO. 


23s  2111. 
Restaurant-.  factor\  .  227   231. 
Rc-t  perioil,  in  workim;  day.  120  ff 


Scale  for  rating  aiiplictints,  54-55, 
Si'hneider,  IL,  cited  concerning  per- 
sonality of  applicants,  54  ;  value 
a  preventive  of  fatu-'ue,  120;  grow-!  o|  methods  fit,  in  vocational  guid- 
ing popul:irity  of,  120  b!0;  ri'u'U-  aiice.  .V.I;  aim  of  work  of,  77; 
larir,ing  ;ind  enforcing,  bin    |.;i.  ciii'.j,  sii,  s] . 

Riki'-Kiimler       '■oinpany.       u-e       of    ."Schools,     seiairing     employes     from, 
ph.NsK'.il  cxaiiiinaiions  l,y.  tiO,  I       :<5-3('> ;     industrial  tuid  vocational, 

RiMT-ide     I'oiiloid     (  etiM'tit     fom-        77    lin. 

pari'.  rc~uli-  to,  o!  iinp|o\-m<a,t  .-^(icntilic  man;u;cmeni .  di'Veh  pment 
ot  physically  sotind  workers.  IK);;  ol.  II  l.'i,  \alue  of.  in  relation 
results  to,  of  safety  measures  tukeu  I  to  n  mnncriiion  of  employes,  20<'>- 
by,  300.  I      20S,     objecliuu    of    workers    iiiid 


INDEX 


363 


labor  leaders  to,  223  ;    accepted  by 

shop  committee.  223-224. 
Scott,    W.    Dill,   cited.   51  ;     concrete 

scale  for  mtine;  :ii)|)licunts  deviscit 

by,    54-.i.j ;     .scientific    studies    u{ 

sale.SDianship  Ijy.  ,')7. 
Scouting  for  eniployerf,  31-3."). 


Sopris.  Colo.,  educational  experi- 
ment at.  2(tl. 

Solvay  Process  Company,  employ- 
ment bureau  of.  2i') ;  Americaniza- 
tion plan  of.  9')-l()l);  results  of 
shortened  working  hours  at.  ll'.l; 
vacations  for  employes  of.  131. 


Sears.    Roebuck   and   Comi)any,   use  j  Spanish  River  I'ulp  and  I'.iper  Mills. 


of  physical  examinations  by.  (j((, 
172 ;  vacations  for  em|)loyes  (.-f 
131  ;  combined  proht-sharini;  and 
savings  scheme  of,  21S-21il,  .32U ; 
rest  room  of.  23!) ;  athletic  fields  of. 
248;  tenuis  courts  furni.shed  'ov, 
255. 

Seashore,  Professor,  tests  devised  bv, 
56. 

Seneca    F'alls    Manufacturing    Cum- 
pany.  vestibule  school  of.  ><'.). 

Service     bonus     for     stabilizing     in- 
dustrial force.  211. 

Service  for  empi.iyes.  2. 

Service  pensions.  .313-314. 

Sex.   as  a  predisposing  factor  in  in- 
dustrial diseases.  144   H."). 


exiierience  of,  with  qualitj  progress 

record.  211. 
Special  training  classes  for  employes. 

'.•3- '.I  I. 
Sijnilcd  work,  as  a  measure  of  fatigue, 

lir,. 
Spruigstcad,    Mr.,    on    value    of    the 

creilit  union,  32:5. 
Squicr.    L.    .v..   (luoti'd,    311);     study 

<if  i'niplo>crs'  serviri'  pensions  bv. 

313.  31'1. 
."Standard    physical    ex.aminations    of 

N'ew  ^'ork  Muuiciijal  ('ivil  Service 

Commission,  ITil. 
.Standards,   for  evaluating   labor  ad- 
ministration. 3-1);    for  housing  de- 

\'elopnients.  27S-2S(). 


Shadwell,  .\rthur.  study  of  industrial  ',  ."Stenographers,     special     classes     for, 

methods  by.  It.  j      ',)). 

Sherwin-WiUiama    Paint    Company.  ■  Stereojjticons.  use  of.  for  instruction, 

cleanliness    enforced    among    em- 
ployes of,    144 ;    men's  club  room 

at,  2.30. 
Shop  Chautauquas,  243. 
Shop  committees.  223. 
Shredded    Wheat    Biscuit   Company. 

entertainments    for    employes    of. 

254. 
Bieher  and  Comjjany.  Knglish  classes 

at.  11)0. 


KHt. 

Sti'tson  Comi>any,  use  of  physical 
examinatinns  li_\-,  (it);  service  bonus 
paid  by,  211. 

Stewart.  Ira.  early  advocate  of  eight- 
hour  day.  111. 

Stock-selling  plans  of  corjiorations. 
320-321;    ditliculty   of,  :i23   321. 

.Store  i;r(lers.  pavment  of  wages  in. 
I       220. 


empl'X-es  secured  from  schools  by. 
i.") ;  NoMii  Day  Club  foi  girls  at. 
.'12;  athletic  field  of.  J  l,s  24!) ; 
musical      organizatioris      at,      2.')1  ; 


Sick   benefits,   of   trade  unions,   2'.Hi ;    Strawbridge  and   Clothier  Coniiiany. 

of  fraternal  societies.  207. 
Sickne.ss.  measuring  fatigue  by,  ll."!- 

110;    relation   bi'tween  long  hours 

and,    121  ;    relation  between  night 

work   and,    121;     increa.sc;   of,   duel       .Athletic  Assoei.ition  of.   2.')3. 

to  Sunday  work.  120.  i  Street  r,iilw:iy  club  hou,scs.   240. 

Sickness     insurance.     204.     20)1- ,503  ;!  Street  rail«,i\   rest  rooms,   237. 

distribution    of    risk    in.    301-:{02  ;i  Strikes     eauseil      by     di.-imtes     over 

provinec  of.  in  I'nited  States,  302- 

303. 
Smith.  Ijlward,  eiti'd,  s."). 

Social  chilis  of  emplo\es.  2.V!.  I  Sut;ye,~tion     systems    as    :i     foini     of 

Social     insuranie    laws     u     lOurope,         I.oums.  21.1  21."i 

2U4-2yj.  I  Summer    eaiups    for    employes,    240. 


«;iges,  J_J   Jj.i. 

■■luer. lislrilelion    U'T   hous 


.'70 


364 


INDEX 


Suuclay     work,     arguments    against, 

12",    lL>li. 
Swininiing  pdul?*  fcir  t'ni|i!o\i-i,  J  l^. 
Sy(li'nsirick<'r,      l...      quofi'il,       lltl  ; 

studios    of     heaitli     iii^iirauii'     liv, 

L'itti,  1",)7. 
SyslDii  lUO''^,  niugaziiii'.  i:i. 

Talks  (jn   health   fur  I'luiiluvcs,    li)7- 

llls. 
Tar(linf>s,     labur     Ic.^s     frnni,      lio; 

iiic'tliDiis  of  corrcctiui;,  II.",   (ill. 
Taj'lor,     i''r('(lrrick    W.,     jiionoLT     in 

(■fh<'ii'nfy  luovi'incnt.  It. 
Taylor  uago  .'^ysloni,  2W>. 
Technical  niglit  schools,  s.'i-S,">. 
Ti'oth,    care    of,    of    cnij, loves,     177- 

179. 
Teleplioiie  comiJanv  rer-t  rooms.  'S.l'i- 

Telephone  employes,  training  classes 

for,  '.lit. 
Telephone  girls,  suninier  homes  jiro- 

videil  for,  249-2.">(). 
TeiinoM-e  Coal,  Ircjn  ami  It.  I{.  Co., 

he;dlh  work  of,  2ss. 
Tests,     for     arm.\-     officers,     ,",t   o.", ; 

p.sychological,      for     workers,     o.'i- 

GO;     salesnu'n's,    .37;     function    of 

psycliological,  OS;    of  fatigue,   114- 

Uti. 
Thomas     Manufactuiiiig     ( 'ouipan\', 

social  chil,  of,  2.")  1. 
Thomson-Houston      Coinpaii;.',      eni- 

I)loynient     of     hlind     workers     li\-, 

',(2. 
Tiiree   po.-itions   plan   of   promotion, 

yti  117. 
Towne,   II.   U.,   gain->h;iring  plan  of, 

217. 
Town    planning    in    (lc\  eloi>mciit    of 

industrial  housing,  27-J   27  1. 
'i'rude   n~k,   a   basic   principle   for   in- 
dustrial   accident    instirance,    .iil7 

:i()s. 

Trade  unions,  vocationnl  courses 
given  l,y,M  ,  ed\i(aiion;d  a<'livities 
of,  1112  l(l.(;  \acations  enforced 
by.  1:12.  inanagemcnl  of  recrea- 
tional activities  I, v.  2."iS  2."i'.l ; 
insurance  of  then'  iriciid..rs  liy, 
Ugain^l  sickness,  2'.lti  2'.»7  ;  dis- 
tnliution  of  risk  iu  iiisurauce  by, 


301  ;     critici.sm    of    life    in.suranec 

etTorts  of,  :{().',. 

Transfers  of  employes,  7.'5. 

Transportation  facilities,  housing 
and,  2ti:5-2ti4,  2lit>-2(w. 

Traut.schold,  H.,  cited,  ls!»,  102. 

Tul,erciil(,sis,  in  (hlTerent  oceupa- 
ti(uis,  ls;5-l.S4;  methods  of  pre- 
vention, 1S4  ;  campaign  against, 
at  Oxford,  Mas.s.,  1S4-1S.");  failure 
of  campaigns  against,  caused  l>y 
employers,  Is.*,;  free  bed  funds 
curative  but  not  preventive,  1S.5- 
IWi ;  rei'iiiploynient  and  after 
care  of  patients,  Isti. 

Tuberculosis  san.atoria,  1>>2-Is:). 

Turnover.     Sec  Labor  turnover. 

I'nfit,  placement  of,  l,y  physical 
I'xamintitioiis,  ti0-(12, 

I'niforms  for  employes,  l.",l-l.">2. 

L'nit  cour.ses  in  technical  night 
schools,  .VJ-St. 

I'nited  Cigar  .'^tores,  ijromotion  plan 
use<l  by,  '.(7. 

I'nited  Shoe  Machinery  Compan.v, 
club  hou.se  of,  24tj,  247;  .\tliletic 
Association  of,  2.",.')  ;  ."^ani  Sam 
day  of,  2.')t'i. 

rnitecl  ."^tates,  early  labor  adminis- 
tration m.  11  12;  soci(>ties  iu,  for 
mutual  aid,  2',i:i  2'.»4. 

liiited  States  I-'ederal  lOmployment 
Scrvic<',  :{s  :{!). 

I'lnted  Slates  Plasing  Card  (!'om- 
liaiiN'.  health  work  of,  2>s7. 

riiiled  l^tates  Ste-'l  Corporation, 
evening  classes  maintained  by, 
^.") ;  encouraiiemenl  of  garilening 
by,  2Mi;  If  alth  work  of,  2,s7 ; 
stock-purcha.se  plan  of,  :i2()-;521. 

I'riian  housing  conditions  for  em- 
ployes, 2li;i-2(i0. 

Wacatioii    bureau.s    for    assistance    of 

emplnyes,  2.",0. 
Vacations  fur  employes,   l.'il    l:!2. 
^'almora  Ind  i^trial  Sanatoriuiii,  New 

Mexico.  1^2    Is.;. 
\  eiller.  Lawrence,  ciiioted,  27.'). 
\'cntilalioii  of  uorkrooms,  Llli-l,',!). 
X'estibule  schools,  SS   M) ;    conducted 

by  war  mdustrica,  80, 


IXDKX 


365 


Vifkors  Limitod  fartorips,  first -:tifj 
kit  used  in,  17:5-174. 

Viscose  Industrial  VilhiKC,  2t)S,  27:5; 
house  rents  at,  2M). 

Vocational  education,  77  IT. 

Vocational  schools,  coutiuualion 
schools  as,  10:5. 

^'o(■ational  tests,  .■).')-.")S. 

\'oReler,  Dr.,  on  rceniployiuent  of 
tuberculous.  Isii. 

Voluntary  aiuiuit.v  system  of  old- 
age  insurance,  ;511-,'512. 

Wage.'-,  importance  of,  200;  <lefini- 
ti(jn  of,  200  201  ;  scoiie  of  prol)lem 
of,  201;  fi.xinn  of  basic,  201-20:5; 
time  and  piecework,  20:5~204 ; 
premium  or  bonus  methods,  204- 
20^  ;  of  salaried  and  ofhce  workers, 
20s ;  work  stimuli  other  than 
regular,  209-210;  ijrofit-sharinu, 
210  210;  tini,  and  medium  of 
pa.vinjr,  21'.)-222. 

Wagner  Electric  Manufacturing 
Company,  iiasket-ball  teams  of. 
2.W. 

Walpole,  Mass.,  joint  medical  de- 
partment at.  Is7. 

Waltham  Watch  ('omi)any.  board- 
ing house  inainlaiueil  b.v,  2S0. 

Wanamaker's,  summer  camp  for 
emjiloyes  of,  240;  emjiloyes'  b.ind 
of,  2.")1  ;  singing  taught  in  (adei 
Battalion  of,  2,")2  ;  management  of 
recreational  activities  of.  2.")7. 

Wanamaker  Commercial  Institute, 
cultural  efiucation  by,  101    102. 

Wanamaker  Women's  League,  do- 
mestic science  classes  of.  101. 

Warbasse,  ,1.  I'.,  (juoted  on  co(>pera- 
tivc  purchasing  and  distribution. 
2S4  2N.^). 

War  industries,  system  of  vestibule 
scliools  adopted  by.  Ml. 

Warner.  .V.  (1.,  011  old-age  de- 
Iiendency.  :il(). 

Warner  Brothers,  club  house  erected 
l)y.  244. 

Wastes  in  advertising  for  apiilicaiits. 

;52  :54. 

Water,   drinkim;.   for    workers.     I  111 
V.  uyne    Kmltiug    Mills,    prolit-shar 


ing   and   management-sharing   at, 
22.'). 

Welfare  work,  2  ;  historical  origin  of, 
(i  12.  .Sir  iindir  Labor  adminis- 
tration. 

U'esterii  I'.lectrii'  Compan.v,  system 
of  promotion  at.  74;  arrangement 
of  emplojinent  department  of,  7,j  ; 
enii)lo\nient  of  blind  workers  by, 
92 ;  system  of  special  training 
employed  by.  9:5-94. 

Wi.ffi'rn  EUclric  .Vci/'.s,  a  typical 
plant  organ,  10,5-107. 

Westinghousc  Electric  Comiian.y, 
bHnil  employes  of,  92  ;  Btatistics  on 
accidents  from,  141  ;  promotion 
system  at.  and  results,  212;  wage- 
payment  system  at,  222. 

Wharton  School  of  Finance,  Uni- 
versity of  Pennsylvania.  1:5. 

Whiliple.  C.uy  M.,  (juoted  on  jjsycho- 
logical  tests,  o>5-"j9. 

Whitney,  Miss,  model  emergency 
ei|uipment  described  by,  17.j. 

Willys-Overland  ComiJany,  bonus- 
for-(iuality-of-work  system  used 
by.  211   212. 

\\  iiichcster  Repeating  Arms  Com- 
pan.v, refreshments  served  at, 
2:51. 

Wi-^consin,  state  insurance  s<'heme 
in,  :512. 

Women,  susceptibility  of,  to  iu- 
(lustri..l  diseases,  14.'). 

Worcester.  Mass.,  failure  of  tuber- 
i'iilo>is  campaign  at.  Is."). 

Working  hours,  111  IT.  ;  fatigue  in 
relation  to,  U2-114;  economy  of 
shortiT,  110  122;  question  of 
length  of  working  period,  12t')- 
\.\\  ;  coiiperation  of  employes 
essenti.'il  to  success  of  shorter, 
1:54 ;  relation  between  housing 
and,  20:5. 

Workmen's  Circle,  tulterculosis  sana- 
t^irium  of,  I'.t.'), 

Workmen's  ( 'onipensation  Laws.  :iOs 
cll'cct    of.    on    medical   c.iti'   of   em- 
ployes. i(>j    It;.-,. 

Workshop  committee  movement.  22:j. 

.\-ray  rooms  in  niedii  al  departments 
of  industrial  establishments,  177. 


366 


IN'DEX 


Yonkers,  N.  Y.,  Sprain  Ridge  Sana- 
torium at,  186. 

Y.  M.  C.  A.,  night  school  program 
of,  85,  102  ;  industrial  program  of, 
243;  industrial  club  houses  •ludvr 
control  of,  258. 

Youngstown  Sheet  and  Tube  Com- 
pany, housing  development  by, 
268. 


Y.  W.  C.  A.,  evening  classes  of,  102; 
factory  meetings  during  noon  hour 
conducted  by,  243  ;  industrial  club 
houses  under  control  of,  258. 


Zeiss  optical  goods  factory,  results 
of  shorter  working  day  at,  117- 
118. 


Printed  In  the  I'nltort  .statei  of  Amerlo*. 


